The early 20th century witnessed the dramatic rise of authoritarian ideologies across Europe, most notably Nazism in Germany, Fascism in Italy, and a broader surge in right-wing, nationalist governments. These movements emerged in the aftermath of World War I, fuelled by economic instability, social unrest, and widespread disillusionment with traditional political systems. The Treaty of Versailles, the Great Depression, and the fear of communism further exacerbated these conditions, creating fertile ground for radical ideologies that promised national rejuvenation, social order, and strong leadership.

Nazism and Fascism, though distinct in their origins and doctrines, shared common elements such as the glorification of the state, the rejection of liberal democracy, and the use of aggressive nationalism and militarism. Both movements sought to create a new social order based on the principles of hierarchy, discipline, and unity, often at the expense of individual freedoms and minority rights. The rise of these ideologies led to the establishment of totalitarian regimes that exerted control over all aspects of life, from politics and the economy to culture and education.

In Germany, the rise of Nazism under Adolf Hitler was marked by the consolidation of power through a combination of political manoeuvring, propaganda, and brute force. Hitler's regime, driven by a racist ideology that emphasized Aryan supremacy, led to the systematic persecution of Jews and other minorities, culminating in the horrors of the Holocaust. The Nazi regime also pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at expanding German territory and establishing dominance over Europe, ultimately leading to the outbreak of World War II.

In Italy, Benito Mussolini's Fascist movement capitalized on post-war economic turmoil and fears of socialist revolution to establish a dictatorship that emphasized state control, nationalism, and imperial ambition. Mussolini's regime sought to restore Italy to the glory of the Roman Empire, leading to military campaigns in Africa and the Balkans and aligning Italy with Nazi Germany during World War II.

The rise of these authoritarian regimes was not limited to Germany and Italy. Across Europe, governments of the right gained power, often through alliances with or influence from Fascist and Nazi movements. In Spain, General Francisco Franco led a nationalist uprising that culminated in a fascist dictatorship after the Spanish Civil War. In other countries, such as Hungary, Romania, and Poland, right-wing governments implemented authoritarian policies, often marked by anti-Semitism, nationalism, and militarism.

Aftermath of World War I and the Treaty of Versailles

The conclusion of World War I in 1918 left Europe in a state of profound turmoil. The war had devastated much of the continent, leading to immense loss of life, economic hardship, and social upheaval. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including significant territorial losses, military restrictions, and reparations payments. These terms were intended to prevent Germany from becoming a military threat again but instead fostered deep resentment and a sense of humiliation among the German populace.