Colonial Policies:

1.Revenue Systems: British revenue policies, like the Permanent Settlement, burdened farmers with high taxes, pushing them into debt and making them vulnerable to famines.

2.Cash Crop Focus: Encouragement of cash crops for export over subsistence crops diminished food availability for local consumption.

Agricultural Issues:

1.Outdated Farming Practices: Reliance on traditional farming methods and lack of access to modern agricultural techniques and inputs reduced crop yields and resilience to environmental stress.

2.Monoculture Risk: Dependence on single crops (like rice or wheat) increased vulnerability to crop-specific diseases or climatic events.

Exploitative Land Systems: High rents and oppressive practices by landlords left peasants with little to no surplus, reducing their ability to endure crop failures.