Year/Period

Event

Explanation/Significance

1707

Death of Aurangzeb

Marked the beginning of the rapid decline of the Mughal Empire as Aurangzeb’s long campaigns had drained imperial resources. Regional powers (Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs, and others) began asserting autonomy, accelerating political fragmentation and setting the stage for future struggles for supremacy.

1707–1712

Reign of Bahadur Shah I (Shah Alam I)

Aurangzeb’s son attempted to restore Mughal authority but faced intense internal rivalries and external threats. His reign saw precarious peace with the Marathas and lingering tensions with the Rajputs. The period highlighted the weakening central governance, as local nobles and provincial officials often acted independently.

1712–1719

Successive Mughal Emperors (Jahandar Shah, Farrukhsiyar, Rafi-ud-Darajat, Rafi-ud-Daulah, Nikusiyar)

A turbulent phase in Mughal history with multiple emperors enthroned and deposed quickly. The Sayyid Brothers, often called “Kingmakers,” dominated the court. Their manipulative politics undermined the empire’s stability and further fragmented Mughal authority, paving the way for regional rulers and external powers to exploit Mughal weaknesses.

1713

Shahu recognized as Chhatrapati of the Marathas

Consolidated Maratha power under Shahu, though effective control increasingly passed to the Peshwas (prime ministers). This development laid the foundation for the Maratha Confederacy, which would expand across large parts of India and challenge the Mughals, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and later the British.

1717

Farrukhsiyar’s Farman to the British East India Company

Granted the EIC duty-free trade in Bengal (except for an annual payment of 3,000 rupees), boosting their commercial expansion. This farman gave the British a critical edge over Indian merchants and European rivals, cementing a foothold that would later facilitate political intervention in Bengal.

1720

Fall of the Sayyid Brothers

The Sayyid Brothers were overthrown by rival factions in the Mughal court, revealing the empire’s deep-rooted instability. Their downfall did little to restore Mughal strength; instead, it exposed the power struggles at the center, accelerating the shift of real authority to provincial rulers and warlords.

1724

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah founds the State of Hyderabad

By declaring autonomy, Asaf Jah (the Nizam) effectively carved out Hyderabad from the Mughal Empire. This underscored the central empire’s decline and exemplified how strong regional dynasties emerged, shaping the political landscape in the Deccan and interacting with other powers (Marathas, Mysore, and later the British).

1719–1748

Reign of Muhammad Shah

Known as “Rangila” (pleasure-loving), Muhammad Shah’s reign was marked by artistic and cultural patronage but also by military defeats and the continuing fragmentation of the empire. Maratha incursions increased, culminating in the sacking of Delhi, while foreign invasions (like Nadir Shah’s) further weakened the empire’s structure.

1739

Invasion of Nadir Shah

Nadir Shah, the Persian ruler, invaded and captured Delhi, plundering immense wealth, including the Peacock Throne. His successful campaign exposed Mughal military weaknesses, leading to further raids by Afghans and Marathas. The sacking of Delhi symbolized the empire’s vulnerability and moral collapse.

1746–1748

First Carnatic War

An extension of the War of Austrian Succession into India, pitting the British against the French in the Carnatic region of South India. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Although the war was inconclusive in India, it laid the groundwork for future Anglo-French rivalry, directly impacting local Indian politics.

1749–1754

Second Carnatic War

Triggered by competing claims to the Nawabship of the Carnatic, exploited by French (under Dupleix) and British (under Robert Clive). This war cemented British influence in South India, as they outmaneuvered the French politically and militarily, foreshadowing further British expansion across the subcontinent.

1751

Siege of Arcot

Robert Clive’s defense of Arcot against Chanda Sahib and the French was a significant military and psychological victory for the British. It enhanced the East India Company’s reputation for bravery and tactical brilliance, attracting local allies and helping secure the Company’s foothold in the Carnatic region.

1756–1763

Seven Years’ War (in Europe) & Third Carnatic War (in India)

A global conflict between Britain and France that also unfolded in India, further weakening French influenceThe Third Carnatic War ended with British dominance in southern coastal regions. This struggle determined the fate of European powers in India, paving the way for Britain’s subsequent colonial expansion.

1756

Siraj-ud-Daulah becomes Nawab of Bengal

Siraj-ud-Daulah’s assertive policies against the British (e.g., opposing the fortification of Calcutta) led to heightened tensions. His rule set the stage for the Battle of Plassey (1757), which dramatically changed the political landscape in Bengal and beyond.

1757

Battle of Plassey

Robert Clive’s decisive defeat of Siraj-ud-Daulah marked the beginning of British political control in India. Through a combination of bribery (Mir Jafar’s defection) and superior artillery, the EIC emerged victorious. This triumph gave the Company unprecedented influence in Bengal’s administration and revenue.

1758

Marathas briefly capture Lahore

Demonstrated the apex of Maratha expansion as they pushed north into Punjab. However, they could not sustain control in the face of Afghan resistance, highlighting the fragile alliances and overextended supply lines that eventually contributed to their setback at Panipat (1761).

1760

Battle of Wandiwash

A critical British victory over the French in the Third Carnatic War, effectively ending French ambitions in India. The battle proved the growing strength of the EIC’s army and signalled a new era where Britain stood as the principal European contender on Indian soil.

1761

Third Battle of Panipat

Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani) of Afghanistan defeated the Marathas, dealing them a catastrophic blow and checking Maratha expansion into North India. The outcome shifted power balances in the subcontinent, weakening Maratha unity and giving regional states like the Sikhs and the British a chance to rise.

1764

Battle of Buxar

The EIC’s victory over the combined forces of Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, the Nawab of Oudh (Shuja-ud-Daulah), and the Nawab of Bengal (Mir Qasim) reinforced British supremacy. It also led to British control over Bengal’s revenues, making Bengal the financial base for further imperial expansion.

1765

Diwani Rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa granted to the EIC

Formally recognized in the Treaty of Allahabad, this measure transferred revenue collection in these provinces to the British, an unprecedented economic foothold. This administrative control was crucial for financing the EIC’s military campaigns and expansion across India.

1765

Treaty of Allahabad

Finalized terms after the Battle of Buxar. The Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II, granted Diwani rights to the EIC and recognized British ascendancy in Bengal. This treaty institutionalized the shift from a trading entity to a de facto ruler in parts of eastern India.

1767–1769

First Anglo–Mysore War

Conflict between Hyder Ali of Mysore and the EIC, marked by swift cavalry raids and territorial struggles. Ended with the Treaty of Madras, which was briefly a mutual defense pact, but laid the groundwork for future clashes due to unresolved tensions and British dissatisfaction with treaty obligations.

1770

Great Bengal Famine

Caused by failed monsoons, invasive revenue policies, and mismanagement. It led to the death of an estimated 10 million people in Bengal. The scale of suffering underscored the tragic consequences of commercial priorities overshadowing welfare, shaking local confidence in British governance.

1772–1774

Warren Hastings as Governor of Bengal

Hastings implemented judicial and revenue reforms, reorganizing the nawab’s courts under British oversight. His controversial dealings, such as Rohilla War involvement, later led to his impeachment trial in England (he was acquitted). His tenure laid the foundation for centralized British administration.

1773

Regulating Act

Enacted by the British Parliament to curb the East India Company’s excesses and institute checks on corruption. It created the post of Governor-General in Bengal and a Supreme Council. Although limited in immediate effect, it was the first major step in Britain’s direct intervention in EIC governance.

1774

Supreme Court established at Calcutta

Created under the Regulating Act, the court was the highest judicial authority in British India. Its establishment marked a shift toward a British legal framework, leading to jurisdictional conflicts with traditional courts and sparking debates on the interface of English and Indian legal practices.

1775–1782

First Anglo–Maratha War

Triggered by a succession dispute between Peshwa Raghunath Rao and supporters of the infant Peshwa, it ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782). This temporarily stabilized relations and allowed the Marathas to retain their territory, but it also signalled the EIC’s growing ability to intervene in internal Maratha politics.

1780–1784

Second Anglo–Mysore War

Fought primarily between Hyder Ali (later Tipu Sultan) and the British. Characterized by large-scale manoeuvres in the Carnatic region. Ended with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784), which restored territories to pre-war status but left deep distrust on both sides, foreshadowing future conflicts with Tipu Sultan.

1784

Pitt’s India Act

Strengthened British government control over the EIC by creating the Board of Control, establishing a dual system of governance (Company and Crown). This was a key step toward formalizing state oversight of the EIC, linking Indian administration more closely with British parliamentary interests.

1790–1792

Third Anglo–Mysore War

Lord Cornwallis led the British forces against Tipu Sultan. Tipu’s defeat forced Mysore to cede half its territory and pay a heavy indemnity, weakening Mysore’s power. This outcome significantly bolstered the British presence in southern India and demonstrated their growing superiority in conventional warfare.

1793

Permanent Settlement of Bengal

Introduced by Lord Cornwallis, it fixed land revenue with the Zamindars, aiming to create a stable revenue source and a loyal class of landlords. However, it often led to exorbitant rents on peasants and contributed to agrarian distress. Its impact shaped the social and economic landscape of Eastern India for decades.

1798

Lord Wellesley becomes Governor-General

Implemented the Subsidiary Alliance system, requiring Indian states to accept British forces in return for “protection” and effectively undermining their sovereignty. This approach expanded British influence across the subcontinent without immediate annexation.

1799

Fourth Anglo–Mysore War & Death of Tipu Sultan

The British, allied with the Marathas and the Nizam, overran Seringapatam. Tipu’s death eliminated Mysore as a major threat and allowed the British to partition the state. The fall of Tipu, a staunch anti-British figure, symbolized the end of significant indigenous resistance in southern India for a time.

1802

Treaty of Bassein

Signed between the British and Peshwa Baji Rao II, granting the British a strong foothold in Maratha politics. The Peshwa accepted Subsidiary Alliance conditions, effectively compromising Maratha autonomy and sparking discord among other Maratha chiefs.

1803–1805

Second Anglo–Maratha War

British campaigns against various Maratha chiefs (Scindias, Bhonsles) ended in a British victory, significantly reducing Maratha power. The war expanded British territory across central India, consolidating their hold and reshaping the political map of the subcontinent.

1806

Vellore Mutiny

A localized sepoy mutiny triggered by new dress regulations that offended Hindu and Muslim sentiments. Although swiftly suppressed, it foreshadowed the potential for wider revolts among Indian troops, highlighting cultural and religious sensitivities in the colonial army.

1813

Charter Act of 1813

Renewed the EIC’s charter but ended its monopoly over all trade except tea and with China. It opened India to British merchants and Christian missionaries, laying the groundwork for increased cultural and religious interactions, as well as commercial exploitation.

1814–1816

Anglo–Nepalese War

Sparked by territorial disputes between the Gorkha Kingdom of Nepal and the EIC. The war showed the limits of British expansion in mountainous regions. Despite British advantage in numbers, Nepal’s resilient defense forced negotiated peace, revealing the challenging Himalayan terrain’s strategic complexity.

1816

Treaty of Sugauli

Ended the Anglo–Nepalese War; Nepal ceded parts of the Terai region and allowed a British Resident in Kathmandu. This treaty established Nepal’s modern boundaries and indicated the British preference for protectorate-like arrangements in sensitive frontier zones.

1817–1818

Third Anglo–Maratha War

The final conflict with the Maratha Confederacy, resulting in the dissolution of the Peshwa’s authorityBaji Rao II was pensioned off, and large territories were annexed or brought under direct British rule. This marked the end of Maratha power and the near-complete ascendancy of the British in India.

1818

End of Peshwa Rule

Baji Rao II’s surrender sealed the fate of the Maratha confederacy. The British absorbed key Maratha territories into their empire and installed pro-British princely rulers were beneficial. This consolidation paved the way for unchallenged British dominance across Western and Central India.

1828

Raja Ram Mohan Roy founds the Brahmo Samaj

A seminal socio-religious reform movement emphasizing monotheism, influenced by Enlightenment ideas. It campaigned against practices like Sati and child marriage, setting the stage for 19th-century Indian reform movements. Roy’s efforts also contributed to modern educational initiatives.

1829

Abolition of Sati by Governor-General William Bentinck

This legislative act banned the immolation of widows on their husband’s funeral pyres, driven by humanitarian concerns and advocacy by Indian reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Although resisted in some quarters, it showcased British willingness to intervene in social customs, influencing later reform policies.

1833

Charter Act of 1833

Abolished the EIC’s commercial functions, focusing it purely on administration. Elevated the Governor-General of Bengal to Governor-General of India, centralizing control. This act foreshadowed further consolidation of British authority, effectively preparing the way for direct Crown governance.

1835

English Education Act

Influenced by Macaulay’s Minute, it promoted English as the medium of instruction in Indian schools. This policy aimed to create a class of Indians educated in Western thought, facilitating administrative efficiency but also sowing seeds of intellectual awakening and future nationalism.

1836

First Vernacular Newspaper (Udant Martand)

Published in Hindi, it pioneered vernacular journalism, fostering public discourse on social and political matters. It helped create an informed reading public, gradually nurturing a spirit of debate and early forms of public opinion critical of colonial policies.

1838–1842

First Anglo–Afghan War

An attempt to install a pro-British ruler in Kabul, it ended in disaster for the British, with a humiliating retreat and near-total annihilation of the retreating army in 1842. This demonstrated the difficulties of extending direct control into the Afghan region and influenced future British frontier policies.

1843

Annexation of Sind

Led by Sir Charles Napier, the British EIC conquered Sind, citing alleged misrule. The “Peccavi” (I have sinned) pun used by Napier symbolized the brazen expansionism. This annexation solidified the British presence in north-western India and opened additional trade routes to Central Asia.

1845–1846

First Anglo–Sikh War

Following tensions between the Sikh empire (under weak successors of Ranjit Singh) and the British, warfare resulted in British victoryThe subsequent Treaty of Lahore placed the Punjab under partial British control. It illustrated how internal Sikh court intrigues and a strong British army determined regional power shifts.

1848–1849

Second Anglo–Sikh War

Led to the full annexation of the PunjabDisaffection with the British Resident and Sikh nobility’s divisions hastened the empire’s fall. With Punjab under direct rule, the British completed control over North-Western India, eliminating the last major independent kingdom in the region.

1852

Second Anglo–Burmese War

Sparked by disputes over British merchant ships and Burmese authorities. The war ended with the British annexing Lower Burma, expanding British Indian territories eastward. It also secured British trade interests along the Bay of Bengal and the Irrawaddy delta, heightening strategic control in Southeast Asia.

1853

Introduction of Railways (First line in Bombay)

Connected Bombay to Thane. The railway network revolutionized transportation, boosted trade, and facilitated faster troop movements. While beneficial to colonial administration and British investors, rail expansion also integrated regional markets and inadvertently aided the spread of nationalist ideas.

1854

Wood’s Despatch on Education

A comprehensive educational policy that recommended a graded school system, with English at higher levels and vernacular languages at primary levels. It paved the way for establishing universities in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras (1857), shaping colonial India’s modern education framework.

1856

Annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie

Justified by the Doctrine of Lapse and alleged misgovernance. This action enraged the local nobility and sepoys from Awadh (many served in the British army). It was a major catalyst for the 1857 Revolt, as it reinforced fears of British disrespect for local rulers and traditions.

1857

The Great Revolt / First War of Independence

A widespread uprising among sepoys, peasants, and some princes against EIC rule, sparked by religious grievances (cartridge controversy) and long-standing resentment (land annexations, economic hardships). Though ultimately suppressed, the revolt ended the Company’s rule, leading to direct Crown governance.

1858

Government of India Act

Transferred administration of India from the EIC to the British Crown. A Viceroy replaced the Governor-General, symbolizing a significant constitutional shift. The Act also promised some administrative reforms and non-interference in religious matters, attempting to quell Indian discontent after the 1857 Revolt.

1861

Indian Councils Act

Reorganized the Viceroy’s Council, allowing the nomination of non-official members, including limited Indian representation. Although symbolic, it was an early step towards political inclusivity and foreshadowed later legislative reforms under the British Raj.

1862

Death of Bahadur Shah II in Rangoon

The last Mughal Emperor died in exile after being convicted of supporting the 1857 Revolt. His death symbolized the final end of Mughal prestige and provided a rallying point for some Indians lamenting the lost empire and further discrediting the legitimacy of old feudal structures under British rule.

1872

First Census in British India

Conducted to gather demographic data for better administration. It helped the British in taxation, law enforcement, and resource allocation but also solidified notions of racial categorization and communal identities, influencing later colonial policies like separate electorates.

1876

Founding of the Indian Association (Calcutta)

Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose established this body to organize political debates, demand civil service reforms, and unify Indians across provincial lines. It was a precursor to the Indian National Congress, reflecting the burgeoning spirit of political assertiveness among the educated Indian middle class.

1876

Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India

This imperial title, proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar (1877), symbolized the apex of the British Raj and the Queen’s sovereignty over all princely states. It also served as propaganda to legitimize British rule, projecting an image of benevolent monarchy for the “jewel in the crown.”

1877

Delhi Durbar

A grand ceremonial assembly marking Victoria’s assumption of the title “Empress of India.” It showcased British imperial grandeur and was attended by Indian princes, reinforcing a political hierarchy with the Crown at the apex. The display also reinforced loyalty among certain princely states hoping for British favor.

1878

Vernacular Press Act

Imposed censorship and restrictions on Indian-language newspapers, aiming to curb criticism of British policies. This act revealed the anxieties of colonial authorities about growing public opinion. Its enforcement fuelled resentment among emerging Indian intellectuals and journalists, fostering a sense of shared grievance.

1878–1880

Second Anglo–Afghan War

Initiated by British fears of Russian influence in Afghanistan. Despite initial successes, the British faced fierce resistance and had to negotiate peace. This war reaffirmed the strategic complexity of the North-West Frontier, influencing future frontier policies and the creation of buffer states.

1881

First Official All-India Census

More comprehensive than the partial 1872 attempt, it set a decennial precedent of census-taking. The data informed colonial governance, revealing population distributions, caste compositions, and religious demographics, which later influenced policies on representation and social reform.

1882

Local Self-Government reforms under Lord Ripon

Enhanced municipal and district boards, granting limited representation to Indians in local affairs. Seen by some as a liberal policy promoting “political education,” these reforms opened avenues for Indian political participation, albeit under strict British oversight.

1882

Hunter Commission on Education

Investigated the quality and extent of primary and secondary education in India. Recommending increased vernacular instruction and teacher training, the Commission highlighted deficiencies in the colonial system and urged improvements that later shaped educational expansion.

1883

Indian National Conference convened by Surendranath Banerjea

A precursor to the Indian National Congress, bringing together regional associations to discuss political reforms and civil liberties. This gathering exemplified the emerging national consciousness among Indian elites, foreshadowing the formal birth of the INC in 1885.

1883–1884

Ilbert Bill Controversy

Proposed allowing Indian judges to preside over cases involving European defendants. Intense opposition by European elites forced a compromise. The outcry against equality in the legal system exposed racial tensions within the Raj and spurred new political awareness among educated Indians advocating legal rights.

Year

Event

Explanation / Significance (Expanded)

1885

Foundation of the Indian National Congress (INC)

Formed in Bombay under the leadership of Allan Octavian Hume (a retired British ICS officer) and Indian leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Dinshaw Wacha, etc. Intended initially as a platform for educated Indians to discuss moderate reforms through petitions and dialogue with British officials. Over time, evolved into the principal organization uniting diverse regions and leaders in India’s struggle for self-governance.

1886

Second Session of INC in Calcutta

Presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji. Attendance far exceeded that of the first session, reflecting growing political consciousness. The delegates adopted resolutions seeking expansion of legislative councils and improved civil services, laying the groundwork for future demands for greater Indian participation in governance.

1887

Third Session of INC in Madras (Badruddin Tyabji presides)

Tyabji was the first Muslim president of the INC, symbolizing the party’s early ideal of inter-communal cooperation. Emphasized constitutional methods—petitions, resolutions—to address colonial injustices. Demonstrated that, from its early years, the Congress sought broad inclusivity, countering later colonial accusations that it was purely Hindu or elitist.

1888

British Committee of the Indian National Congress in London

Created by sympathetic Britons and Indians to lobby the UK Parliament for Indian reforms. Published the journal India to disseminate Congress proceedings and critiques of colonial rule among British elites. Showed how the early INC sought transnational support for its moderate reformist agenda, anticipating later global appeals by Indian nationalists.

1892

Indian Councils Act

Slightly enlarged legislative councils and permitted a few Indian nominations. Hailed by some moderates as a step forward, but overall insufficient for nationalists seeking genuine power-sharing. The limited scope left many leaders disillusioned, reinforcing calls for self-rule rather than token representation.

1893

Swami Vivekananda’s Address at the World’s Parliament of Religions, Chicago

September 11, 1893: Vivekananda eloquently championed India’s Vedantic and spiritual traditions, impressing Western audiences. Undermined colonial-era stereotypes portraying Indians as backward, and bolstered cultural pride among Indians. The speech became a landmark event in forging cultural nationalism, inspiring many to view spiritual heritage as a cornerstone of Indian identity in resisting foreign rule.

1895

Tilak Initiates Public Ganapati Festival

Bal Gangadhar Tilak publicized Ganesh Chaturthi festivities, transforming them into a public platform for communal unity and covert political discourse. This innovative tactic circumvented British bans on political rallies, allowing subtle mobilization of popular sentiment against colonial rule and contributing to Tilak’s emergence as a prominent “Extremist” leader.

1897

Chapekar Brothers & Plague in Poona

The Chapekar brothers assassinated plague commissioner W.C. Rand, seen as tyrannical. Introduced armed nationalist violence into the public sphere, highlighting the anger built up by intrusive plague policies. Their actions inspired some youth to embrace militancy, paralleling the moderate petition-based strategy, thus broadening the spectrum of anti-British approaches.

1899

Lord Curzon becomes Viceroy of India

Noted for administrative vigour but an imperious style. His numerous reforms (education, policing, irrigation) were overshadowed by his high-handed approach, culminating in the Partition of Bengal (1905) that sparked the Swadeshi boycott. Curzon’s tenure is pivotal in accelerating Indian nationalism, unifying diverse groups in opposition to perceived imperial arrogance.

1905

Partition of Bengal (by Lord Curzon)

Divided Bengal into a Muslim-majority East and Hindu-majority West, ostensibly for administrative efficiency. Sparked Swadeshi & Boycott Movements, marking a major shift from petitions to mass protest—boycotting British goods, promoting Indian industries, fostering national unity across sectarian lines. This movement galvanized public consciousness, making nationalism more ingrained in the rural-urban fabric of Bengal and beyond.

1905

Servants of India Society (Founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale)

Focused on political education, social welfare, and moral reforms. Embraced moderate, constitutional methods. Members (e.g., Srinivasa Sastri) would later serve in legislative councils, attempting to shape colonial policies from within. Although overshadowed by the intensifying Swadeshi agitation post-1905, the Society’s emphasis on civic duty influenced the ethos of emerging Congress leaders.

1906

Formation of the All India Muslim League (AIML)

Established in Dhaka, initially to safeguard Muslim interests within colonial frameworks. Over time, the League’s stance moved from loyalty to the British to seeking separate electorates (under Morley-Minto) and eventually demanding Pakistan. This trajectory illustrates how colonial tactics (e.g., separate electorates) fuelled communal politics, culminating in partition.

1906

INC Calcutta Session (Dadabhai Naoroji presides)

Dadabhai Naoroji declared Swaraj (self-government) as the Congress’s ultimate objective—an ideological leap from earlier, softer demands. Demonstrated a rising sense of national political destiny, albeit still framed within a constitutional approach. This session served as a moral impetus for younger nationalists, who viewed Swaraj as India’s inalienable right.

1907

Surat Split

Congress divided into Moderates (Gokhale) vs. Extremists (Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal). The latter insisted on Swadeshi, Boycott, and direct mass action; the former stuck to gradual reforms. This acrimonious split weakened the INC short-term but also broadened nationalist tactics, as both streams continued pursuing different strategies to end colonial domination.

1908

Muzaffarpur Bomb Case

Attempted assassination of British magistrates in Muzaffarpur. Linked to secret societies in Bengal (e.g., Anushilan Samiti), who believed violent means were necessary. The subsequent crackdown spotlighted revolutionary terrorism, showcasing an alternative route to freedom coexisting with the broader Congress-led constitutional movement.

1908

Tilak’s Arrest and Trial for Sedition

Sentenced to six years in Mandalay for writings criticizing British rule. Sparked massive public sympathy; Tilak emerged as a hero of defiance. His famous line, “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it,” became a rallying cry, intensifying calls for full independence and galvanizing nationalist youth disillusioned with moderate petitionary methods.

1909

Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act, 1909)

Introduced separate electorates for Muslims, modestly expanded legislative councils. Praised initially as progressive, it soon drew criticism for heightening communal divisionsNationalists demanded genuine legislative control, not token Indian involvement. This reform exemplified Britain’s divide-and-rule tactic: while it nominally recognized Indian representation, it entrenched communal identity in politics, sowing seeds for future splits.

1910

Lord Hardinge becomes Viceroy

Succeeded Minto; oversaw capital transfer from Calcutta to Delhi (1911) and faced revolutionary challenges (1912 bombing). Hardinge’s blend of mild concessions and strong-arm tactics defined Britain’s approach: stifling extremism while offering limited openings to moderates. This policy failed to quash the growing impetus for mass-based nationalism.

1911

Annulment of Bengal Partition

Under sustained Swadeshi pressure, the Raj reversed Bengal’s partition. However, they moved the capital to Delhi, hoping to reduce Bengal’s influence in anti-colonial politics. Despite partially appeasing moderate Bengali interests, the event demonstrated that mass protests could force the British to backtrack on unpopular measures, encouraging nationalists to intensify confrontation rather than rely solely on constitutional avenues.

1913

Rabindranath Tagore awarded Nobel Prize for Literature

First Asian Nobel laureate, honoured for Gitanjali. This achievement boosted India’s cultural prestige worldwide. Although Tagore supported moderate nationalism, he critiqued extreme jingoism, offering a universalist perspective that broadened the ethical base of anti-colonial rhetoric. His standing as a global literary figure also undermined colonial stereotypes that India lacked intellectual or artistic accomplishments.

1913

Formation of Ghadar Party in the USA

Composed mainly of Punjabi Sikhs aiming to launch armed revolts against British rule. Published the fiery newspaper Ghadar to incite Indian expatriates. Although their repeated attempts at insurrection were crushed, it exemplified global anti-colonial activism, linking Indian diaspora communities to radical movements at home.

1914–1918

World War I

Over one million Indian soldiers served globally for Britain. Wartime demands strained imperial resources, raising nationalist hopes for major reforms. British reluctance to fulfill these hopes (notably passing the Rowlatt Act) provoked a decisive shift toward mass civil disobedience, as Gandhi soon led the INC in more confrontational strategies. This war experience also exposed Indian soldiers to foreign lands and ideas, broadening anti-imperial consciousness.

1914

Komagata Maru Incident

A ship of mostly Sikh immigrants was barred from entering Canada and sent back to India, where passengers confronted British forces in Calcutta. This highlighted racist immigration laws within the Empire, fuelling anger among Indians that Britain preached equality but practiced discrimination. Strengthened the sense of global anti-colonial solidarity, as diaspora Indians faced similar prejudices abroad.

1915

Mahatma Gandhi’s Return to India

Having developed satyagraha in South Africa, Gandhi arrived in India, soon allying with Congress leaders like Gokhale. His early campaigns in Champaran (1917) and Kheda (1918) proved nonviolent mass mobilization could effectively challenge colonial/feudal oppression, transforming the INC into a people’s movement.

1915

Ghadar Conspiracy (Lahore)

Ghadar radicals tried to incite mutinies in Punjab. Though the plan was uncovered and harshly suppressed, it demonstrated overseas links to foment an armed uprising within India. The British crackdown, including sedition trials, fuelled further discontent and highlighted the interplay between diaspora-based revolutionaries and local anti-colonial sentiments.

1916

Lucknow Pact (INC–Muslim League Agreement)

A milestone of Hindu–Muslim unity, forging joint demands for more elected representation. Although eventually eclipsed by later communal tensions, it proved that cooperative negotiation could yield a strong challenge to British rule. In the short term, it unified the Congress internally as well, healing the 1907 split and offering a collective front.

1916–1918

Home Rule League Movement (Tilak & Annie Besant)

Sought self-government within the British Empire, using pamphlets, public rallies, and local clubs to raise political awareness among Indians. Though overshadowed by Gandhi’s subsequent mass movements, the Leagues left a legacy of widespread political mobilization and prepared the ground for bigger confrontations with the Raj.

1916

INC Lucknow Session

Held concurrently with the Lucknow Pact. Ambica Charan Mazumdar presided; notable for reuniting Moderates and Extremists after the Surat split, demonstrating that internal Congress rifts could be overcome. Alongside the Pact, it briefly unified Hindus and Muslims in a shared political objective, boosting morale and momentum for deeper reforms.

1917

Champaran Satyagraha (Bihar)

Gandhi’s first satyagraha in India, confronting exploitative European indigo planters. Mobilizing peasants through nonviolent methods, he secured significant relief from forced indigo cultivation. This success elevated Gandhi’s stature nationally, proving the moral and strategic power of nonviolence, and steering the Congress toward more grassroots activism.

1917

Annie Besant becomes first woman President of INC

Showed women’s expanding leadership within the Congress. Besant, a British-born theosophist, championed Home Rule, bridging Western liberalism with Indian patriotism. Her presidency marked the INC’s shift to a bolder stance on self-governance, reflecting the post-Lucknow Pact optimism.

1918

Kheda Satyagraha (Gujarat)

Farmers beset by famine and epidemics refused to pay taxes under Gandhi’s guidance. The British partly conceded to relief measures, reinforcing the moral authority of satyagraha and expanding Gandhi’s influence in rural areas. Showed the Congress that local agrarian issues could be powerfully harnessed for nationwide movements.

1919

Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms

- Rowlatt Act empowered the government to detain suspects indefinitely without trial, outraging Indians across the spectrum.
‎- Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13) in Amritsar: General Dyer’s troops killed hundreds of peaceful civilians, galvanizing nationwide condemnation.
‎- Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms introduced diarchy in provinces but left key powers with British officials. Taken together, these events drastically radicalized Indian politics, propelling Gandhi into frontline leadership.

1920–1922

Non-Cooperation Movement (Gandhian Era begins)

Triggered by Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh. Gandhi urged Indians to boycott British institutions, adopt khadi, and eschew foreign titles. Became the first INC-led mass movement drawing millions of peasants, students, lawyers, traders into direct confrontation with colonial authority. Its abrupt end after Chauri Chaura (1922) underscored Gandhi’s unwavering commitment to nonviolence, even at the cost of losing momentum.

1921

Moplah (Mappila) Rebellion (Malabar, Kerala)

Sparked by agrarian and religious grievances among Muslim tenants, initially linked to Khilafat/Non-Cooperation sentiments. Erupted into communal violence between landlords and peasants; British reprisals were severe. The rebellion revealed how localized social-economic discontent could turn communal, straining broader Hindu–Muslim unity that the INC was trying to foster.

1922

Chauri Chaura Incident

Protesters in the United Provinces torched a police station, resulting in multiple deaths. Gandhi halted the Non-Cooperation Movement, underscoring his deep moral commitment to nonviolence. This controversial pause frustrated many activists but solidified Gandhi’s unique leadership style—prioritizing ethical discipline over political opportunity.

1922

Nagpur Flag Satyagraha

Volunteers insisted on hoisting the nationalist flag in public. Colonial crackdowns spurred widespread sympathy, confirming that symbols of nationalism (like flags) could galvanize solidarity across class and regional lines. Enhanced the emotional fervour for the Indian tricolour and other unifying icons.

1923

Formation of Swaraj Party (C.R. Das & Motilal Nehru)

Das and Nehru parted ways with the official boycott stance, forming a party to contest elections under the 1919 Act. Their goal was to obstruct or reform colonial governance from within. This reflected diverse tactical approaches within the Congress: some activists adhered to Gandhi’s mass line, others believed in leveraging legislative institutions.

1923

Kanpur (Bolshevik) Conspiracy Case

Indian communists charged with importing revolutionary ideas from Soviet Russia, alarming British authorities who feared left-wing infiltration would strengthen anti-colonial struggles. Though the convictions varied, it drew attention to the growing socialist element in India’s broader fight for independence.

1924

INC Belgaum Session (Gandhi presides)

The only INC session presided over by Gandhi. He emphasized discipline, unity, and social reforms (anti-untouchability). Provided a moral and strategic roadmap for the next decade, though differences with Swaraj Party leaders and revolutionaries persisted. Reinforced Gandhi’s stance that ethical transformation was as vital as political freedom.

1925

Kakori Conspiracy Case

Revolutionaries (Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, etc.) robbed a treasury train to fund the struggle. Their arrests, trials, and executions inspired radical nationalists, while simultaneously highlighting that a violent underground coexisted with Gandhi’s nonviolent mainstream. This duality broadened the freedom struggle’s scope but also provoked more repressive British policing.

1925

Formation of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS)

Founded by K.B. Hedgewar in Nagpur as a Hindu nationalist organization emphasizing discipline, cultural revival, and social service. While it did not directly spearhead anti-British movements, its ideology and network grew influential, shaping elements of post-independence politics. Another example of ideological variety within the larger nationalist narrative.

1925

INC Kanpur Session (Sarojini Naidu presides)

Sarojini Naidu, the first Indian-born woman to preside over the INC (Annie Besant was British-born). Advocated women’s role in public life and expanded leadership roles for women within Congress. Symbolized growing inclusivity and recognition of women’s contributions, including in grassroots mobilizations.

1927

Simon Commission

A British commission to propose further reforms, excluding Indian members. Its arrival was met with the pan-Indian cry “Simon Go Back.” The resulting unified protests reinvigorated the INC and forced it to advance self-drafted constitutional proposals (like the Nehru Report, 1928). Further eroded the legitimacy of British claims to paternal governance.

1927

Formation of Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FICCI)

Founded by G.D. Birla and Purshottamdas Thakurdas, representing Indian capitalists pushing for swadeshi industries, tariff protections, and economic autonomy. This alliance between business and nationalism indicated how economic self-determination had become central to the freedom movement’s goals, bridging commercial interests with political activists.

1927

All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) Founded

Launched by Margaret Cousins and other reformers to discuss women’s education, legal rights, and social reforms (child marriage, purdah). Although not officially part of the INC structure, AIWC leaders often cooperated with Congress, reflecting women’s broader mobilization in nationalist and social reform spheres.

1928

Nehru Report

Drafted by Motilal Nehru, advocating dominion status within a federal setup, while rejecting separate electorates. The Muslim League criticized inadequate minority safeguards. This rift intensified communal polarization, with Jinnah issuing the “Fourteen Points” in response. Ultimately, the Nehru Report’s partial failure spurred militant voices in Congress to consider “complete independence.”

1928

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) Formed

Revolutionaries such as Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad regrouped to wage an armed struggle against British rule. They aimed to rouse the masses via high-profile actions (e.g., Assembly Bomb, 1929). The HSRA’s socialist tilt indicated that some nationalists sought not just political independence but also radical social restructuring.

1928

Bardoli Satyagraha (Vallabhbhai Patel)

Farmers in Bardoli (Gujarat) defied a 30% tax hike. Patel’s leadership and disciplined non-cooperation forced authorities to retract, winning him the title “Sardar.” Success reaffirmed faith in Gandhian civil resistance, demonstrating that localized, well-organized satyagrahas could yield tangible results and boost morale nationally.

1929

INC Lahore Session & Purna Swaraj Declaration

Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress formally adopted complete independence as its goal. 26 January 1930 was proclaimed as “Independence Day.” This dramatic shift from dominion status aligned the INC’s agenda with the rising popular mood favouring outright sovereignty, setting the stage for the Salt Satyagraha and broader Civil Disobedience.

1929

Irwin Declaration (31 October)

Viceroy Irwin restated Britain’s intention for Dominion Status but gave no timeframe. Congress, disillusioned by vague promises, readied for militant civil disobedience. The stage was set for Gandhi’s Salt March.

1929

Jinnah’s Fourteen Points

Muhammad Ali Jinnah advanced these demands to secure Muslim rights (e.g., separate electorates, federal structure). Congress found them too communal. This impasse widened communal cleavages, signalling that bridging Congress–League positions would be increasingly difficult—an omen of the future partition negotiations.

1930

Civil Disobedience Movement – Dandi March

Gandhi’s Salt Satyagraha (March–April 1930) openly defied the salt tax by walking from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (240 miles). This act electrified the nation, triggering widespread civil disobedience (refusing taxes, picketing liquor shops, boycotting British goods). Thousands were arrested, including top leaders, but it galvanized Indians across caste and creed. International media coverage further undermined Britain’s moral authority.

1930

First Round Table Conference (London)

Convened to discuss India’s constitutional future. INC boycotted (Gandhi in prison), so princely states and minority representatives dominated proceedings. Achieved little without Congress input. The British realized they had to negotiate with Congress directly if they wanted a viable settlement, eventually leading to the Gandhi–Irwin Pact (1931).

1931

Gandhi–Irwin Pact & Second Round Table Conference

- Gandhi–Irwin Pact (March): Gandhi paused the civil disobedience campaign for prisoner releases and limited salt concessions. While controversial among some activists, it let Gandhi attend the Second Round Table Conference in London.
‎- Second Round Table Conference: Gandhi’s negotiations with communal leaders and British officials stalled on separate electorates. He returned to India as talks failed, and civil disobedience resumed in frustration.

1931

Karachi Session of the INC

Sardar Patel presided. The Karachi Resolution laid down fundamental rights (equality, freedoms) and socio-economic measures (labor reforms, land rights), providing a blueprint for India’s post-independence governance. Demonstrated the Congress’s vision extended beyond mere political freedom, encompassing a just social order.

1931

Execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev

Hanged for the Lahore Conspiracy Case (killing a British officer) and bombing the Central Assembly. Their martyrdom inspired youth nationwide, adding a heroic revolutionary narrative parallel to the Gandhian framework. The public outcry intensified demands for an immediate end to colonial injustice.

1932

Communal Award, Poona Pact, Third Round Table Conference

- Communal Award by Ramsay MacDonald extended separate electorates to depressed classes, exacerbating communal/caste fault lines.
‎- Poona Pact (Gandhi–Ambedkar) replaced separate electorates with reserved seats in a joint electorate.
‎- Third Round Table Conference ended inconclusively, reflecting entrenched disagreements on minority representation, leaving India’s constitutional future uncertain.

1933

Gandhi Founds Weekly Newspaper ‘Harijan’

Dedicated to uplifting ‘untouchables’ (Harijans) and mobilizing opinion against caste discrimination, a core aspect of Gandhi’s constructive program. This indicated how the movement for political independence interwove with social and moral reforms, broadening the INC’s appeal to marginalized communities.

1934

End of Civil Disobedience Movement

Gandhi officially called off the campaign due to intensified repression and strategic considerations. Congress leadership pivoted toward local reforms, legislative participation, and sociopolitical reorganization, setting the scene for future mass upsurges. This pause also enabled British authorities to temporarily regroup and reassert control in many areas, although nationalist sentiments remained strong.

1934

Formation of the Congress Socialist Party (CSP)

Founded by Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Deva, and others within the INC to infuse socialist principles (land distribution, labor rights) into mainstream nationalism. While remaining part of Congress, the CSP influenced many grassroots activists, shaping agrarian and labor mobilizations and expanding the ideological scope of the freedom struggle.

1935

Government of India Act

Introduced provincial autonomy and a prospective federation (never fully realized). Indian ministers governed provinces, but Governors and Viceroy retained veto powers. Critics called it a half-step, retaining ultimate colonial control. Nonetheless, it gave Indian politicians some administrative experience, which would ease the transition to independent governance later.

1936

INC Faizpur Session (First rural session)

Held near Jalgaon, Maharashtra, in a rural setting, reflecting the Congress’s outreach to peasants and emphasis on agrarian problems. Emphasized land reforms, fair rents, and other socio-economic issues. This session deepened the INC’s rural connections, aligning with Gandhi’s vision of grassroots mobilization.

1936

All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) Formed

Under Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, uniting peasant movements across India to press for rent reduction, debt relief, and an end to landlord exploitation. Aligned with the Congress in many provinces, cementing rural support for nationalism. Foreshadowed future agrarian-led protests that converged with anti-imperial efforts, bridging economic grievances and political liberation.

1936

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Launches Independent Labour Party

Focused on worker rights and depressed-class issues, reflecting Ambedkar’s pursuit of social justice alongside political freedom. Showed how interest-based parties emerged to address specific socio-economic concerns that mainstream Congress might underrepresent, thereby widening the overall democratic discourse of the freedom struggle.

1937

Provincial Elections

Held under the 1935 Act. The Congress won in several provinces, demonstrating Indian capacity for self-governanceMinisters implemented local reforms (education, agriculture, labor welfare), though constraints by colonial Governors remained. The Muslim League’s relatively poor showing impelled Jinnah to reorganize, escalating communal demands in subsequent years.

1938

INC Haripura Session (Subhas Chandra Bose as President)

Bose advanced industrialization and central economic planningThis session manifested a leftward tilt in Congress thinking, albeit clashing with Gandhi’s predominantly agrarian emphasis. It also showcased internal ideological plurality, from socialist inclinations to Gandhian spiritual politics, all united in the ultimate goal of Indian independence.

1939

World War II (India’s Involvement)

Britain declared India at war with Germany without Indian consultation, prompting Congress provincial ministries to resign. Meanwhile, the Muslim League saw an opportunity to expand its influence (“Day of Deliverance”). War pressures deeply strained Britain’s empire, eventually forcing London to consider major concessions (Cripps Mission 1942). Indian public discontent soared due to rising wartime hardships and the denial of constitutional autonomy.

1939

Tripuri Session of the INC (Bose’s Re-election)

Subhas Chandra Bose defeated Gandhi’s preferred candidate Pattabhi Sitaramayya for Congress presidency, revealing fissures between Bose’s radical line and Gandhi’s nonviolent approach. Bose soon resigned over strategic disagreements, forming the Forward Bloc. This internal rift highlighted divergent visions of how to achieve swaraj and handle global wartime dynamics.

1939

Subhas Chandra Bose Resigns from INC and Forms Forward Bloc

Clashed with Gandhi and the Working Committee on war policies and the pace of agitation. Bose eventually escaped India (1941) and allied with Axis powers to form the INA. Marked a significant ideological departure within the Congress camp, with Bose championing armed struggle and international alliances outside the mainstream Gandhian framework.

1940

Lahore Resolution (Muslim League)

Under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the League proposed “independent states” in Muslim-majority provinces, interpreted later as Pakistan. This openly communal demand reset the political discourse from general autonomy to a debate over partition, signifying the irreconcilable positions that would emerge more starkly post-WWII.

1940

August Offer

Viceroy Linlithgow’s statement promising post-war constitutional discussions and recognizing minority concerns. Deemed inadequate by Congress, which insisted on immediate self-determination. The Muslim League welcomed separate communal assurances, widening rifts. This step reaffirmed Britain’s tactic of balancing concessions to different groups, effectively sustaining communal divides.

1941

Formation of the Indian National Army (INA) – First Phase

Captain Mohan Singh organized Indian POWs in Japanese-held Southeast Asia. Though it soon disbanded, it foreshadowed Bose’s subsequent leadership of the INA, highlighting a faction of nationalists seeking foreign support and military means to achieve liberation. This militarized approach challenged the established nonviolent INC narrative, broadening the movement’s strategic diversity.

1942

Cripps Mission & Quit India Movement

- Cripps Mission (March): Offered dominion status post-WWII but allowed provinces to opt out, threatening India’s unity; Congress rejected it as insufficient.
‎- Quit India Movement (August): Gandhi’s ultimatum demanded British departure. Sparked arrests of top INC leaders (including Gandhi, Nehru, Patel), leading to nationwide protests and strikes. Despite severe repression, this largest Gandhian mass uprising highlighted Britain’s crumbling control and India’s impatience for full independence.

1942

INC Bombay Session – Quit India Resolution

All-India Congress Committee met at Gowalia Tank on 8 August, passing the Quit India Resolution. Gandhi’s “Do or Die” call resonated widely. British authorities pre-emptively arrested leaders the same night. This session formalized the INC’s most decisive push for outright liberation, rejecting half-measures and leaving little room for compromise.

1943–1945

Subhas Chandra Bose & the Reorganized INA

Bose assumed command of the INA in Southeast Asia, proclaiming a Provisional Government of Free India (1943). Allying with Japan, INA forces advanced toward India’s northeast (Imphal–Kohima, 1944). Despite military defeat, the INA Trials (1945–46) in Delhi sparked nationwide sympathy, including among British Indian servicemen, undermining the Raj’s moral and institutional foundations. Bose’s endeavour exemplified the willingness to seek foreign alliances and an armed option beyond Gandhi’s nonviolence.

1943

Bengal Famine

A devastating famine afflicted Bengal, causing millions of deathsWartime requisitions, poor administration, and profiteering exacerbated the disaster. Indians widely viewed it as proof of British mismanagement and callousness, fuelling stronger anti-British sentiment. The famine’s horror was a crucial factor in dissolving illusions of the Raj as a responsible caretaker.

1944

C. Rajagopalachari (CR) Formula

Proposed a Congress–League compromise on Pakistan, suggesting plebiscites in Muslim-majority provinces after independence. Jinnah’s refusal exposed deep-rooted communal mistrust. As war’s end approached, partition seemed more likely, since no middle ground satisfied both the League’s demand for sovereignty and Congress’s vision of a united India.

1945

End of World War II, Simla Conference

- Britain emerged economically weakened, facing global anti-imperialist sentiments.
‎- Simla Conference (June–July): Viceroy Wavell sought an interim government, but stalemated over Congress–League disputes about communal representation. This failure made partition all but inevitable, shaping the final negotiations under Mountbatten.

1945

INA Trials at the Red Fort

British charged INA officers with treason; public outrage erupted nationwide. Even loyalist soldiers expressed sympathy for INA men, signalling a breakdown in colonial authority. The trials galvanized diverse groups, showcasing pan-Indian unity in rejecting British claims that the INA were mere “rebels.” The uproar hastened the Raj’s collapse of moral legitimacy, setting a crucial context for the final transfer of power.

1946

Cabinet Mission, RIN Mutiny, Direct Action Day

- Cabinet Mission (March–May) recommended a federal arrangement to keep India united; acceptance collapsed over grouping provinces.
‎- Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny (February) in Bombay revealed widespread grievances among servicemen over racial discrimination and poor conditions, rattling British confidence in the loyalty of their Indian forces.
‎- Direct Action Day (16 August): Muslim League’s show of force for Pakistan triggered massive communal bloodshed in Calcutta, accelerating the push toward partition.

1946

Tebhaga Movement (Bengal)

Led by the Kisan Sabha, sharecroppers demanded a two-thirds share of the harvest instead of the customary half. Merged agrarian conflict with broader nationalist mobilization, confronting landlords and colonial authorities. The movement reflected class-based rural upheavals feeding into the wider anti-colonial effort, showcasing how economic injustice and nationalist aspirations intertwined.

1946

Interim Government (Jawaharlal Nehru)

Under Cabinet Mission guidelines, an Interim Government was installed in September with Congress and the Muslim League. Frictions over portfolio allocations, particularly Jinnah’s insistence on a separate Pakistan, deepened communal hostilities. The inability to function effectively signalled that partition was becoming inevitable, as mutual distrust paralyzed governance.

1946

Elections to the Constituent Assembly

Congress dominated non-Muslim seats; the Muslim League swept Muslim constituencies. This stark polarization underscored the near-impossibility of forging a united constitutional framework, further fuelling the partition outcome. With the League threatening “Direct Action,” the stage was set for final negotiations under the new Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten.

1947

Mountbatten Plan, Indian Independence Act, Partition

- Mountbatten Plan (June 3) approved partition of British India into India and Pakistan.
‎- Indian Independence Act (July) passed by the UK Parliament, setting 15 August 1947 as the date of independence.
‎- Partition resulted in two sovereign states, accompanied by horrific communal massacres and one of the largest mass migrations in history. Ended nearly two centuries of direct British colonial rule, inaugurating a new, though deeply divided, era in the subcontinent.