Aspect

Constitutional Bodies

Statutory Bodies

Regulatory Bodies

Quasi-Judicial Bodies

Definition

Bodies explicitly established by the Constitution, mentioned within its text and deriving their powers directly from constitutional provisions.

Bodies created by Acts of Parliament or State Legislatures. They do not have a direct constitutional basis but are formed under the authority of a specific statute (law).

Specialized bodies created by law or executive action to regulate specific sectors, industries, or activities. They ensure compliance with laws, set standards, and oversee operations within their domain.

Bodies or authorities that have the power to adjudicate disputes and make decisions in a manner similar to courts, but are not part of the traditional judicial hierarchy. They often combine administrative and judicial functions.

Legal Basis

Established by constitutional provisions (e.g., Articles of the Constitution). Their structure, powers, and functions are enshrined in the Constitution and usually can be altered only by a constitutional amendment.

Created through enabling legislation (an Act of Parliament or State Legislature). Their powers, composition, and functions are defined and can be amended by ordinary legislative procedures.

Usually formed under a statute or executive order, with powers delegated by the legislature. The specifics of their functioning are often detailed in a statutory framework, rules, or regulations.

Formed under laws that confer quasi-judicial powers (either through an Act of Parliament or State Legislature or through specific delegated authority). Their jurisdiction and procedure are defined by the legislation that establishes them.

Appointment & Composition

The Constitution often prescribes the qualifications, appointment procedures, tenure, and removal processes for members. For example, the Election Commission’s composition and appointments are guided by the Constitution.

Determined by the establishing statute. The law will outline the number of members, their qualifications, appointment procedures, and terms of office. For example, the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) composition is defined by the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.

Generally specified in the enabling statute, with expert members appointed often by the government (executive branch). These members typically have domain expertise. For instance, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) members are appointed by the government as per the SEBI Act.

Composition is guided by the parent Act. Members may include retired judges, subject experts, or senior administrative officials. For example, the Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) includes judicial and administrative members appointed as per the Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985.

Functions & Powers

Perform functions entrusted by the Constitution, such as conducting elections (Election Commission), safeguarding fundamental rights (e.g., the Supreme Court as a constitutional court), and ensuring federal financial arrangements (Finance Commission).

Carry out functions defined by their respective Acts—these can include advisory, investigative, monitoring, or welfare functions. Examples: The National Commission for Women (NCW) focuses on women’s issues as per the statute that created it.

Regulate and monitor activities in specific sectors or markets, issue licenses, set standards, ensure fair play, and enforce compliance with rules and regulations. For example, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) regulates telecom services.

Adjudicate disputes, determine liability, impose penalties, and provide remedies. They operate like courts but are more specialized and follow simpler procedures. For example, the Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions resolve consumer grievances as per consumer protection laws.

Autonomy & Independence

Generally enjoy a high degree of autonomy since they are constitutionally mandated. Their independence is protected by provisions related to tenure, removal, and salaries. For example, the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) has secure tenure and removal procedures similar to judges of the Supreme Court.

Varying degrees of autonomy. Some may be relatively independent (e.g., NHRC), but their independence largely depends on statutory provisions. Their functioning and budget may depend on government discretion.

Often designed to be independent of direct government control to ensure impartial regulation. They are expected to make decisions free from political interference, though the degree of independence can vary. For instance, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is relatively autonomous but still works under certain government guidelines.

Expected to be impartial and independent in their adjudicatory role. While appointed by the government, their quasi-judicial character demands freedom from undue executive or legislative influence. However, their independence can depend on appointment and removal procedures as defined by law.

Accountability

Directly accountable to the Constitution and the public through constitutional safeguards. Their actions can be reviewed by the Supreme Court or High Courts if they overstep constitutional bounds.

Accountable to Parliament or State Legislatures since they are creatures of statute. They often must submit reports or be subject to parliamentary oversight through committees.

Typically accountable to the legislature through statutory reporting, audits, or parliamentary committees. For example, regulatory bodies may present annual reports to Parliament.

Subject to judicial review by higher courts (High Courts or Supreme Court) to ensure fairness, legality, and constitutionality of their decisions. They must follow principles of natural justice.

Examples

Constitutional Bodies: Election Commission of India, Finance Commission, Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG).

Statutory Bodies: National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), National Commission for Women (NCW), University Grants Commission (UGC), National Green Tribunal (although it also has quasi-judicial features).

Regulatory Bodies: Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI), Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI).

Quasi-Judicial Bodies: Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT), Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions, Income Tax Appellate Tribunal (ITAT), National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT).

Significance

Ensure the foundational values of the Constitution are upheld, maintain democratic integrity, and safeguard constitutional provisions.

Implement specific welfare policies, uphold human rights, advance education and other developmental goals as mandated by their respective laws.

Foster transparency, efficiency, and fairness in economic and social activities, protect consumers, investors, and maintain order in the respective sectors.

Provide faster, specialized dispute resolution without burdening regular courts, ensure justice in specific areas of law, and maintain rule of law through specialized adjudication.

Constitutional Body

Constitutional Provisions

Composition / Appointment

Functions & Powers

Significance / Role

Additional Notes

Election Commission of India (ECI)

Established under Article 324 of the Constitution. It became operational on 25th January 1950.

Comprises the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commissioners appointed by the President. The number of ECs is determined by the President from time to time. Removal of CEC requires a procedure akin to a Supreme Court judge, ensuring independence. Since 1993, it is usually a multi-member body.

Conducts free and fair elections to the Parliament, State Legislatures, and offices of the President and Vice-President. Prepares electoral rolls, supervises and controls election machinery, allots symbols, monitors Model Code of Conduct. It also registers political parties.

Safeguards democracy by ensuring impartial and transparent electoral processes, upholding universal adult suffrage, and protecting voters’ rights. Enhances citizens’ trust in the legitimacy of elected representatives.

The ECI’s autonomy is enhanced by constitutional safeguards. The Supreme Court has upheld ECI’s powers (e.g., S.P. Gupta case) and reforms like EVM introduction and VVPAT reflect its evolving role in strengthening electoral integrity.

Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)

Established under Articles 315-323. One of the oldest Constitutional bodies, tracing its roots to the Federal Public Service Commission set up under Government of India Act, 1935.

A Chairman and members appointed by the President. Members usually have government or administrative experience. They hold secure tenure; removal only on specified grounds and after an inquiry by the Supreme Court.

Conducts examinations for All-India Services and Central Services (Group ‘A’ and ‘B’), advises on promotions, transfers, and disciplinary matters. Also consults on framing and amendment of recruitment rules.

Ensures a meritocratic, efficient, and impartial civil service, contributing to good governance and continuity in public administration. Enhances trust in state capacity through transparent selection.

UPSC’s recommendations are generally binding on the government, ensuring neutrality. Over time, UPSC has modernized exam patterns (like the introduction of CSAT in 2011) to adapt to changing governance needs.

State Public Service Commissions (SPSCs)

Established under Articles 315-323 for each state. Concept evolved from the same constitutional principles as UPSC, ensuring a uniform recruitment standard.

Composed of a Chairman and members appointed by the Governor of the respective state. Members enjoy security of tenure; removal similar to UPSC but at the state level.

Conducts exams for state civil services and advises on promotions, transfers, and disciplinary actions concerning state employees. It also helps formulate and amend service rules at the state level.

Ensures a fair, merit-based recruitment for state administration, fostering professionalism and integrity in state governance. Provides states with tailored recruitment suited to local conditions.

SPSCs mirror UPSC’s role for states, maintaining federal principles by allowing states to recruit their own officials. Over time, SPSCs have adopted online exam processes and integrated reservations and special provisions as per state policies.

Finance Commission (FC)

Constituted under Article 280 every five years or earlier if needed. The First FC was set up in 1951.

A Chairman (usually an economist or public finance expert) and four other members appointed by the President. Qualifications are defined by Parliament, ensuring expertise in economics, public finance, and administration.

Recommends distribution of tax revenues between Union and States, principles for grants-in-aid, and measures to improve states’ financial positions. Also suggests ways to augment resources of local bodies.

Ensures fiscal federalism by balancing financial resources between Union and States, promoting equity, stability, and sustainable development across regions.

FC’s recommendations, while advisory, are highly influential. Over time, FCs have adapted to changes like the introduction of GST and evolving macroeconomic conditions, recommending performance-based grants and innovative devolution formulas.

Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG)

Established under Article 148. The office predates the Constitution, with roots in British-era auditing.

Appointed by the President. Tenure: 6 years or until age 65. Removal mirrors that of a Supreme Court judge. CAG’s independence is ensured through constitutional safeguards.

Audits all receipts and expenditure of Union and States, government departments, and bodies funded by public money. Submits reports to legislatures, enabling legislative committees (PACs) to scrutinize financial management.

Guardian of public purse, ensures transparency, accountability, and efficiency in public financial administration. Identifies irregularities, wasteful expenditures, and suggests corrective measures.

CAG’s reports have led to significant policy changes and reforms in financial governance. Landmark audits (like the 2G spectrum audit) have influenced public discourse and legal actions.

Attorney General of India

Established under Article 76. The highest law officer of the Union.

Appointed by the President. Must be qualified to be a Supreme Court judge. Serves at President’s pleasure. Typically a distinguished jurist.

Chief legal advisor to the Government of India, appears on behalf of the government in Supreme Court, can participate in Parliamentary proceedings without voting. Advises on complex constitutional and legal issues.

Ensures government decisions are legally sound, upholds rule of law, and provides continuity in interpreting legal aspects of policies. Bridges the executive and judiciary on constitutional matters.

AG can hold private practice but must not advise or appear against the government. Over time, AGs have played key roles in landmark constitutional cases, shaping jurisprudence on federalism, fundamental rights, and economic reforms.

Advocate General of a State

Established under Article 165. The state’s highest legal officer.

Appointed by the Governor of the State, must be qualified to be a High Court judge. Holds office at Governor’s pleasure. Often a prominent lawyer of the state’s High Court.

Chief legal adviser to the state government, represents the state in High Court and may address state legislature without voting. Guides state policies on legal and constitutional matters.

Ensures state’s actions comply with constitutional norms and legal frameworks, preserving rule of law at the state level. Facilitates judicial-executive synergy at the sub-national level.

Similar to the AG of India but at state level. Advocate Generals often deal with federal-state disputes, welfare legislation interpretations, and uphold state’s stance in inter-state adjudications.

National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC)

Established under Article 338. Evolved from combined SC/ST Commission separated by 89th Amendment Act (2003).

Consists of a Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson, and members appointed by the President. Conditions of service are regulated by the President.

Investigates and monitors safeguards for SCs, inquires into complaints of discrimination, advises on socio-economic development, and submits annual reports to the President.

Protects and promotes the rights of SCs, combating discrimination and advancing social justice. Influences policy to uplift historically marginalized communities.

With constitutional backing, NCSC can summon officials, access records, and recommend changes in laws and policies. Over time, it has impacted reservations, atrocity prevention laws, and welfare programs.

National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST)

Established under Article 338A by the 89th Amendment Act. Became separate from NCSC in 2004.

Similar composition to NCSC, appointed by the President. Ensures ST members with domain expertise are included.

Monitors and investigates safeguards for STs, addresses grievances, advises on socio-economic development, and submits reports to the President. Focuses on preserving tribal culture, land rights, and forest rights.

Strengthens protection and welfare of STs, ensures their voices in policymaking, and supports their integration with equity while respecting their distinct identities.

NCST’s recommendations influence tribal welfare schemes, forest rights implementation, and protections against displacement. It collaborates with ministries on tribal education, healthcare, and livelihood projects.

National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC)

Initially a statutory body (1993), given constitutional status by the 102nd Amendment (2018) inserting Article 338B.

Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson, and members appointed by the President. Ensures representation of OBC communities and experts in social policy.

Examines requests for inclusion/exclusion in OBC lists, monitors safeguards for OBCs, advises government on socio-economic development, and submits reports to President.

Enhances affirmative action for OBCs, ensuring that policies reflect their economic and social realities. Strengthens the constitutional mandate for social justice.

Post-constitutional status, NCBC’s recommendations have more weight. Influences reservation policies in education, jobs, and targeted welfare schemes to reduce socio-economic disparities.

Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities

Established under Article 350B. Office created in 1957.

Appointed by the President. Reports to President through Union Ministry of Minority Affairs or related ministry.

Investigates and reports on matters related to linguistic minorities. Ensures proper educational facilities, protection of cultural and linguistic rights. Advises states on safeguarding linguistic interests.

Preserves India’s linguistic diversity, ensuring minority language speakers access education and public services in their mother tongue. Fosters national unity in diversity.

Though less publicized, the Special Officer’s role is crucial in states with diverse linguistic groups, aiding harmonious multilingual policies and preventing linguistic discrimination.

Statutory Body

Enabling Legislation

Composition / Appointment

Functions & Powers

Significance / Role

Additional Notes

National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993

A Chairperson (a former Chief Justice of India or Supreme Court judge), and members including former judges, experts in human rights, appointed by the President on the recommendation of a committee (PM, Home Minister, Leaders of Opposition, etc.).

Inquires into human rights violations or negligence in preventing such violations by public servants. Interacts with NGOs, visits jails, recommends remedial measures, and advises governments on human rights laws.

Acts as the apex watchdog for human rights protection in India, raising awareness, ensuring accountability, and influencing policy reforms.

Though it has no direct enforcement powers, its recommendations carry moral weight and often guide policy changes. Over time, it has conducted significant investigations into custodial deaths, police reforms, and rights of marginalized groups.

State Human Rights Commissions

State-level bodies set up under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 (as amended by states).

Chaired by a retired Chief Justice of a High Court or a High Court judge, with other members appointed by the Governor based on recommendations of a committee.

Similar to NHRC but focused on state-level human rights violations. Investigates complaints, recommends compensation or action to state authorities.

Enhances localized protection of human rights, ensuring citizens have a closer, more accessible redressal mechanism.

State Commissions complement the NHRC’s work. Over time, their effectiveness varies by state capacity, political will, and public awareness.

Central Information Commission (CIC)

Right to Information Act, 2005

Chief Information Commissioner and Information Commissioners appointed by the President on recommendations of a committee (PM, Leader of Opposition, Union Cabinet Minister).

Ensures citizens’ right to information from public authorities. Handles second appeals, orders disclosure of information, and can penalize errant officers.

Promotes transparency, accountability, and participatory democracy by facilitating access to information. Enhances trust in government functioning.

CIC has been pivotal in landmark decisions on RTI queries related to political parties, public sector reforms, and governance transparency. Its decisions have empowered citizens to scrutinize administrative actions.

State Information Commissions

Right to Information Act, 2005 at state level

State Chief Information Commissioner and State Information Commissioners appointed by the Governor based on committee recommendations (CM, Leader of Opposition, a state Cabinet Minister).

Similar to CIC, deals with appeals and complaints within the state regarding non-disclosure of information. Orders disclosure, imposes penalties on State Public Information Officers.

Increases transparency and accountability in state governance, bringing information closer to citizens at a local level.

The effectiveness depends on state implementation of RTI. Some states have active Commissions reducing pendency in RTI appeals, enhancing grassroots democracy.

National Green Tribunal (NGT)

National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

Composed of a Chairperson (a current/former Supreme Court judge or Chief Justice of High Court), judicial and expert members appointed by the Central Government.

Provides speedy, specialized adjudication of environmental disputes. Can issue orders, directions, and award compensation for environmental harm.

Strengthens environmental governance by ensuring polluters pay, protecting forests and biodiversity, and upholding sustainable development principles.

NGT’s orders have impacted major infrastructure projects, halted environmentally destructive activities, and led to stricter compliance with environmental laws.

National Commission for Women (NCW)

National Commission for Women Act, 1990

A Chairperson and members appointed by the Central Government from among people with expertise in women’s issues.

Safeguards women’s rights, investigates complaints of atrocities, recommends policy reforms, and reviews laws affecting women.

Acts as a voice for women’s issues, influencing policy changes such as amendments to domestic violence and sexual harassment laws, and raising awareness of women’s rights.

Though it lacks direct enforcement powers, NCW’s advocacy and research guide legislative and administrative measures. It has intervened in cases like dowry deaths, acid attacks, and workplace harassment.

National Commission for Minorities (NCM)

National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992

Chairperson and members appointed by the Central Government, representing minority communities (Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians).

Evaluates progress of minority welfare programs, inquires into minority rights violations, recommends policies for improving minority education, employment, and representation.

Enhances inclusivity by ensuring minority voices influence government decisions, fostering communal harmony and safeguarding cultural and educational rights.

NCM’s recommendations have impacted scholarship schemes, language preservation, and minority status recognition. It also intervenes against hate speech and communal tensions.

Competition Commission of India (CCI)

Competition Act, 2002

Chairperson and members appointed by the Central Government, often with backgrounds in economics, law, management, or public affairs.

Prevents anti-competitive practices, cartels, abuses of dominance, and regulates mergers & acquisitions. Can impose penalties, direct modifications in business conduct.

Ensures a level playing field in the market, promotes consumer welfare, innovation, and growth by curbing monopolistic behaviour.

CCI’s interventions have impacted large corporate deals, prevented price-fixing cartels, and enhanced India’s attractiveness for fair trade and investment.

Central Vigilance Commission (CVC)

Central Vigilance Commission Act, 2003

A Central Vigilance Commissioner (Chairperson) and Vigilance Commissioners appointed by the President on recommendation of a committee (PM, Home Minister, Leader of Opposition).

Exercises superintendence over vigilance administration, monitors CBI’s corruption cases, advises on disciplinary matters, and ensures integrity in public administration.

Acts as the apex integrity institution, combating corruption, enhancing accountability in public services, and restoring public confidence in governance.

CVC’s guidelines influence departmental enquiries, promote whistleblower protection, and guide systemic reforms against corruption in procurement and administration.

Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC)

Cinematograph Act, 1952

Chairperson and Board members appointed by the Central Government from cinema, arts, culture backgrounds.

Certifies films for public exhibition, classifies films based on content suitability, can suggest cuts or refuse certification.

Balances creative freedom with cultural sensitivities, public morality, and law & order considerations in cinema.

Often at the center of debates on censorship, cultural representation, and freedom of expression in films. Has modernized certification categories (U, U/A, A) over time.

National Legal Services Authority (NALSA)

Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987

The Chief Justice of India (CJI) is the Patron-in-Chief, a serving or retired judge of Supreme Court as Executive Chairman. Members from judiciary and legal fraternity appointed by Central Government.

Provides free and competent legal services to marginalized sections, organizes Lok Adalats for speedy dispute resolution, promotes legal literacy and awareness.

Ensures “access to justice for all,” reducing legal backlog, making justice affordable, and encouraging amicable settlement of disputes.

NALSA’s initiatives like Legal Aid Clinics, mobile courts, and awareness campaigns have empowered weaker sections and reduced litigation costs.

National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR)

Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005

A Chairperson and members appointed by the Central Government, persons with experience in child welfare, juvenile justice, or related fields.

Monitors and protects child rights, examines safeguards under existing laws, inquires into child rights violations, recommends policy improvements.

Ensures a child-centric approach in governance, influences policies on child labor, trafficking, education, and health, upholding the best interests of children.

NCPCR’s interventions shaped policies like the Right to Education and POCSO Act implementation. Conducts inspections of child care institutions, ensuring accountability.

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

Chairperson and members appointed by Central Government. Usually includes environmental scientists, engineers, and administrative personnel.

Advises the Union on pollution control measures, sets standards, conducts research, coordinates with State Pollution Control Boards, enforces environmental laws.

Key environmental regulator ensuring clean air, water, and managing hazardous waste. Protects public health and supports sustainable development by monitoring pollution levels.

CPCB’s directives have improved emission norms, wastewater treatment protocols, and influenced major policy decisions on stubble burning, vehicular emission standards, and industrial effluent management.

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

Disaster Management Act, 2005

Chaired by the Prime Minister, with members nominated by the Central Government. Usually includes experts in disaster management, administration, and related fields.

Lays down policies, plans, guidelines for disaster management. Coordinates response, ensures capacity-building, conducts risk assessments, and oversees mitigation efforts.

Strengthens resilience against natural and man-made disasters, reduces vulnerability, and enhances preparedness for effective response and recovery.

NDMA’s guidelines have shaped India’s approach to cyclones, earthquakes, floods. Initiatives like mock drills, National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) training, early warning systems have saved lives and property.

Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)

Khadi and Village Industries Commission Act, 1956

A Chairperson and members appointed by the Central Government, chosen from sectors related to rural development, cottage industries, finance, or marketing.

Plans, promotes, organizes, and assists in development of khadi and village industries, provides financial support, marketing assistance, and skill development to rural artisans.

Fosters rural entrepreneurship, generates employment, preserves traditional crafts, and strengthens the rural economy, thereby aiding inclusive growth.

KVIC’s e-marketing initiatives, product design improvements, and tie-ups with online platforms have modernized the khadi sector, enhancing its global appeal.

National Commission for Safai Karamcharis (NCSK)

National Commission for Safai Karamcharis Act, 1993 (originally statutory; now reconstituted through resolutions)

A Chairperson and members appointed by the Central Government, representing interests of sanitation workers (Safai Karamcharis).

Monitors implementation of laws and schemes for Safai Karamcharis, recommends measures for their welfare, addresses complaints of exploitation and harassment.

Ensures dignity, social security, and welfare of sanitation workers, aiming to eradicate manual scavenging and improve working conditions.

Although the Act lapsed, NCSK continues through government resolutions. It has influenced policies like mechanization of sewage cleaning and rehabilitation of manual scavengers.