GS3 - glossary

GLOSSARY

Term	Explanation
Adaptation	The process by which organisms adjust to new environments or changes in their current environment to survive and reproduce. For example, chameleons adapt by changing their skin colour to blend into their surroundings for camouflage. Certain crops, like drought-resistant maize, have been genetically adapted to survive in arid conditions. Polar bears have adapted to cold environments by developing thick fur and a layer of fat for insulation.
Agroforestry	A land-use management system where trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland, combining agricultural and forestry practices for mutual benefits. For instance, integrating nitrogen-fixing trees like Acacia among crops can enhance soil fertility and reduce the need for chemical fertilizers. In India, farmers often practice agroforestry by planting neem trees which provide shade and help maintain soil moisture, benefiting crops such as wheat and rice.
Air Quality	A measure of the condition of air based on the amount of pollutants it contains, affecting human health and the environment. Poor air quality can lead to respiratory issues and other health problems. For example, the Air Quality Index (AQI) in cities like Delhi and Beijing often reaches hazardous levels due to high concentrations of particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), nitrogen dioxide, and Sulphur dioxide from vehicle emissions, industrial activities, and construction dust.
Biocultural Diversity	The interconnectedness of biological and cultural diversity, emphasizing the role of human cultures in conserving and managing biological diversity. For example, the indigenous peoples of the Amazon rainforest possess extensive knowledge of local plant and animal species, which they use for food, medicine, and cultural practices. In Bali, traditional rice farming techniques, known as Subak, not only support diverse ecosystems but also maintain cultural heritage and community cooperation.
Biodegradation	The breakdown of organic substances by natural means, such as by microorganisms, into simpler substances like water, carbon dioxide, and biomass. For example, food waste decomposes through the action of bacteria and fungi, returning nutrients to the soil. Biodegradable plastics are designed to be broken down by microorganisms in composting environments, unlike conventional plastics which can persist in the environment for hundreds of years.
Biodiversity	The variety of all forms of life on Earth, including the different species, genetic variations, and ecosystems they form. Biodiversity is crucial for ecosystem stability and resilience. For instance, rainforests like the Amazon support an immense variety of plant and animal species, many of which are not found anywhere else on Earth. Coral reefs are another example, providing habitat for countless marine species and supporting complex food webs.
Biodiversity Conservation	The practice of protecting and managing biodiversity to ensure its sustainability and prevent the extinction of species and the degradation of ecosystems. Examples include establishing protected areas such as national parks and wildlife reserves to safeguard habitats and species. Conservation programs, like those for the giant panda in China and the black rhino in Africa, aim to protect endangered species through habitat preservation, anti-poaching efforts, and breeding programs.
Biodiversity Hotspot	A biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is under threat from human activities, identified for priority conservation efforts. These regions often contain high numbers of endemic species. Examples include the Amazon rainforest, known for its vast array of plant and animal life, the Coral Triangle, which supports the highest diversity of coral species in the world, the Himalayas, home to unique mountain flora and fauna, and Madagascar, where many species have evolved in isolation and are found nowhere else.
Biogeochemical Cycle	The natural pathways by which essential elements of living matter are circulated in ecosystems. For example, the carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms through processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition. The nitrogen cycle involves the conversion of nitrogen into various chemical forms through fixation, nitrification, and denitrification.
Biogeographic Barrier	Physical or biological features that prevent the free movement of species across regions, leading to isolated populations. Examples include mountain ranges like the Himalayas, which separate different species and ecosystems, and oceans that act as barriers for terrestrial species, preventing their dispersal between continents.
Biogeographic Barrier Island	Coastal landforms that are separated from the mainland by a lagoon, bay, or similar body of water, acting as barriers to the movement of species. Examples include the Outer Banks in North Carolina, which protect the mainland from storms and serve as unique habitats for diverse species. The Galápagos Islands are another example, where isolation has led to the evolution of unique species not found elsewhere.
Biogeographic Biome	Large regions characterized by specific climate conditions, plant communities, and animal groups. Examples include tropical rainforests, which have high rainfall and biodiversity; deserts, which are arid and support drought-resistant vegetation; and tundras, which are cold and have limited vegetation but support specially adapted animals like caribou and polar bears.
Biogeographic Climate Envelope	The range of climate conditions under which a species can survive, grow, and reproduce. For example, polar bears require cold climates and sea ice to hunt seals, while cacti are adapted to survive in hot, dry desert conditions. The concept is used to predict changes in species distribution due to climate change.
Biogeographic Dispersal	The movement of organisms from one geographic region to another, expanding their range and potentially leading to gene flow between populations. Examples include the spread of plant seeds by wind or animals, the migration of birds between breeding and wintering grounds, and the dispersal of marine larvae by ocean currents.
Biogeographic Evolution	The process by which species evolve differently in separate geographic areas due to isolation and varying environmental conditions. For example, Darwin's finches on the Galápagos Islands evolved distinct beak shapes to exploit different food sources, and marsupials in Australia evolved separately from placental mammals elsewhere due to long-term geographic isolation.
Biogeographic Migration	The large-scale movement of species from one geographical region to another, often driven by seasonal changes, environmental factors, or life-cycle events. For example, the annual migration of wildebeest in the Serengeti, which move in search of fresh grazing, and the migration of monarch butterflies from North America to Mexico, which is driven by the need for suitable breeding conditions.
Biogeographic Province	A region defined by unique combinations of species and ecosystems, often reflecting specific climatic and geological conditions. For instance, the Mediterranean Basin, which hosts a diverse array of endemic plant species adapted to its hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, and the Cape Floristic Region in South Africa, known for its incredibly high plant diversity and unique fynbos vegetation.
Biogeographic Realm	Large-scale biogeographic divisions of the Earth's surface, based on distinct animal and plant communities. Examples include the Nearctic realm (North America), which is characterized by species such as bison and black bears, the Neotropical realm (South America), known for its rainforests and species like jaguars and toucans, and the Palearctic realm (Europe, North Asia, and North Africa), which includes species like wolves and birch trees.
Biogeographic Region	Areas of the world with distinct biological communities that have evolved due to climate, topography, and historical factors. For example, the Amazon Basin, which is home to one of the richest tropical rainforests on Earth with countless species of plants, animals, and insects, and the Sahara Desert, characterized by its extreme arid climate and specialized flora and fauna like camels and date palms.
Biogeographic Species Pool	The set of all species available to colonize a particular area, shaped by historical, ecological, and evolutionary processes. For example, the species pool in a tropical rainforest includes a wide variety of trees, insects, birds, and mammals that have adapted to the humid and stable climate, while the species pool in an arctic tundra includes cold-adapted species like mosses, lichens, and caribou.
Biogeography	The study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. It includes understanding patterns of species diversity and the processes that influence those patterns. For example, biogeographers study how continental drift has separated populations, leading to the unique flora and fauna of Madagascar, and how climate change is affecting the distribution of species like polar bears.
Biological Invasions	The introduction and spread of non-native species into new habitats, often resulting in ecological disruption and negative impacts on native species. Examples include the invasion of zebra mussels in North American freshwater systems, which clog water intake pipes and outcompete native species, and the spread of the invasive plant kudzu in the southeastern United States, which grows rapidly and smothers native vegetation.
Biome	Large ecological areas on the Earth's surface with distinct climate, flora, and fauna. Examples include tropical rainforests, which have high rainfall and biodiversity with species like toucans and orchids; savannas, characterized by grasslands with scattered trees and species like lions and elephants; deserts, which are arid with specialized species like cacti and lizards; tundras, which are cold with low-growing vegetation and species like reindeer and arctic foxes; and temperate forests, with moderate climates and deciduous trees like oaks and maples.
Biome Biogeochemistry	The study of chemical processes and nutrient cycles within biomes, including the flow of elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. For example, the carbon cycle in a forest biome involves processes like photosynthesis, where trees absorb carbon dioxide and convert it into biomass, and respiration, where plants and animals release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. The nitrogen cycle involves processes like nitrogen fixation by bacteria, which convert atmospheric nitrogen into forms usable by plants, and decomposition, which returns nitrogen to the soil.
Biome Classification	The categorization of the Earth's diverse environments into distinct biomes based on factors like climate, vegetation, and soil types. Common classifications include the division of biomes into categories like tropical forests, known for their warm temperatures and high rainfall; temperate forests, with moderate climates and seasonal changes; grasslands, with vast open areas dominated by grasses; deserts, with low precipitation and extreme temperatures; and tundras, with cold climates and low vegetation.
Biome Disturbance	Events that disrupt the structure and function of a biome, leading to changes in species composition and ecosystem processes. Examples include wildfires in grasslands, which can lead to the regeneration of certain fire-adapted plants; hurricanes in coastal biomes, which can cause widespread destruction but also create new habitats; and human activities like deforestation, which can lead to habitat loss and fragmentation.
Biome Diversity	The variety of species and ecosystems within a biome. For instance, tropical rainforests have high biodiversity with numerous species of plants, animals, and microorganisms, all interacting in complex food webs. Deserts have lower biodiversity but are home to species highly adapted to harsh conditions, such as succulents that store water and nocturnal animals that avoid daytime heat.
Biome Mapping	The process of creating maps to show the distribution and boundaries of different biomes across the Earth's surface. This involves using satellite imagery, climate data, and vegetation patterns to delineate areas like forests, grasslands, and deserts. Biome maps help in understanding the global distribution of ecosystems and are essential for conservation planning.
Biome Productivity	The rate at which plants in a biome produce biomass through photosynthesis, contributing to the overall energy flow and nutrient cycling. For example, tropical rainforests have high productivity due to abundant sunlight and rainfall, leading to dense vegetation and rapid growth. In contrast, deserts have low productivity due to limited water availability, resulting in sparse vegetation and slower growth rates.
Biome Resilience	The ability of a biome to recover from disturbances and maintain its ecological functions. For example, grasslands can quickly regenerate after fires, as many grass species are adapted to fire and can resprout rapidly. Coral reefs, however, may take much longer to recover from bleaching events caused by climate change, as coral growth and recovery are slow processes.
Biome Shift	The movement or change in the distribution of biomes due to environmental changes such as climate change. For example, as global temperatures rise, temperate biomes may shift poleward or to higher altitudes, while deserts may expand into regions previously classified as grasslands. This can result in significant changes in local ecosystems and biodiversity.
Biome Stability	The ability of a biome to remain relatively unchanged in terms of structure and function over time, despite environmental fluctuations and disturbances. For example, old-growth forests exhibit biome stability through their complex structure and long-lived species that maintain ecosystem functions over centuries, whereas ecosystems that experience frequent disturbances, like floodplains, may have lower stability but high resilience.
Biome Transition	The gradual change or blending between different biomes, often characterized by ecotones, which are transitional zones between biomes. For instance, the transition from a forest biome to a grassland biome may be marked by a mix of trees and grasses, supporting species from both biomes. These zones can be rich in biodiversity due to the overlap of species and habitats.
Biophilic Design	An architectural and design approach that incorporates natural elements and processes into the built environment to enhance human well-being and performance. Examples include buildings with large windows for natural light, indoor plants, green roofs, and the use of natural materials like wood and stone. Biophilic design aims to create spaces that connect people with nature, improving health and productivity.
Bioremediation	The use of living organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or plants, to remove or neutralize contaminants from a polluted environment. Examples include using bacteria to clean up oil spills in marine environments (biodegradation of hydrocarbons) or planting hyperaccumulator plants to extract heavy metals from contaminated soils (phytoremediation). Bioremediation is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly method for environmental cleanup.
Blue Carbon	Carbon captured and stored by the world's oceanic and coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses. These ecosystems sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in biomass and sediments, helping to mitigate climate change. For example, mangrove forests are highly efficient at storing carbon, trapping it in their roots and underlying soils, which can remain stable for centuries.
Blue Economy	The sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while preserving the health of ocean ecosystems. Examples include sustainable fisheries, marine biotechnology, renewable energy from offshore wind farms, and ecotourism. The blue economy aims to balance economic development with the conservation of marine and coastal ecosystems, ensuring long-term benefits for both people and the planet.
Carbon Capture and Storage	The process of capturing carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from sources such as power plants and industrial processes and storing it underground to prevent it from entering the atmosphere. This involves capturing CO₂ at the source, compressing it for transport, and injecting it into deep geological formations like depleted oil and gas fields or deep saline aquifers. For example, the Sleipner Project in Norway captures CO₂ from natural gas processing and stores it under the North Sea.
Carbon Farming	Agricultural practices aimed at increasing the amount of carbon stored in soil and vegetation, thereby reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. Techniques include no-till farming, which reduces soil disturbance and increases carbon sequestration, cover cropping to prevent soil erosion and enhance organic matter, and agroforestry, which integrates trees into agricultural landscapes. For example, Australian farmers practice carbon farming by planting native tree species to enhance soil carbon storage.
Carbon Footprint	The total amount of greenhouse gases, primarily CO₂, emitted directly or indirectly by an individual, organization, event, or product throughout its lifecycle. This includes emissions from energy use, transportation, food production, and waste management. For example, the carbon footprint of a car includes emissions from fuel combustion, manufacturing, and maintenance. Companies calculate their carbon footprints to identify areas for emission reductions and improve sustainability.
Carbon Intensity	The amount of carbon dioxide emissions produced per unit of energy or economic output. It is often measured in grams of CO₂ per kilowatt-hour (gCO₂/kWh) for energy production or per unit of GDP for economic output. Lowering carbon intensity involves using cleaner energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and adopting low-carbon technologies. For instance, renewable energy sources like wind and solar have lower carbon intensities compared to coal or natural gas.
Carbon Leakage	The situation where, due to stringent climate policies in one country, businesses relocate production to countries with less stringent regulations, leading to no reduction in overall emissions. This undermines the effectiveness of climate policies. For example, if a steel manufacturing company moves its operations from a country with high carbon taxes to one with no such regulations, the emissions associated with steel production might remain the same or even increase due to less efficient practices.
Carbon Markets	Systems in which countries, companies, or individuals can trade carbon emission allowances or credits. Carbon markets aim to provide economic incentives for reducing emissions. For example, in a cap-and-trade system, a government sets a cap on total emissions and distributes or auctions off emission allowances. Companies that reduce their emissions can sell excess allowances to others that need more. The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is a prominent example.
Carbon Neutrality	Achieving a balance between emitting carbon and absorbing carbon from the atmosphere in carbon sinks. This can be accomplished by reducing emissions and investing in carbon offset projects. For example, a company can become carbon neutral by improving energy efficiency, switching to renewable energy sources, and purchasing carbon offsets for remaining emissions through reforestation projects or renewable energy investments.
Carbon Offsetting	Compensating for CO₂ emissions by funding projects that reduce or sequester an equivalent amount of carbon. These projects can include reforestation, renewable energy installations, and methane capture from landfills. For instance, an airline might offer passengers the option to offset their flight's carbon emissions by funding a tree-planting project. This helps balance out the emissions generated by the flight.
Carbon Pricing	The method of setting a price on carbon emissions to incentivize reducing greenhouse gases. This can be done through carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems. A carbon tax directly sets a price on carbon by levying a fee on fossil fuel use based on its carbon content. A cap-and-trade system sets a cap on total emissions and allows the trading of emission permits. For example, British Columbia has a carbon tax that applies to fossil fuel purchases, encouraging reduced consumption and investment in clean energy.
Carbon Sequestration	The process of capturing and storing atmospheric CO₂ in plants, soils, geologic formations, or oceans. Forests, wetlands, and soils are natural carbon sinks, capturing CO₂ through photosynthesis and storing it in biomass and organic matter. For instance, reforestation projects enhance carbon sequestration by planting trees that absorb CO₂. Geological sequestration involves injecting CO₂ into underground rock formations for long-term storage.
Carbon Tax	A fee imposed on the carbon content of fossil fuels, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions by encouraging energy efficiency and the use of cleaner energy sources. The tax makes fossil fuels more expensive, thereby incentivizing businesses and individuals to reduce consumption and invest in renewable energy. For example, Sweden has implemented a carbon tax that applies to fossil fuels used in heating and transportation, contributing to a significant reduction in the country’s emissions.
Circular Economy	An economic system aimed at eliminating waste and the continual use of resources through principles like reuse, repair, refurbishment, and recycling. In a circular economy, products are designed for longer use, materials are kept in use for as long as possible, and waste is minimized. For example, a company might design a product that can be easily disassembled for repair, or use recycled materials in manufacturing. The aim is to create a closed-loop system that reduces the need for new resources and minimizes environmental impact.
Clean Development Mechanism	A flexibility mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol that allows industrialized countries to invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries to earn carbon credits. These credits can be used to meet their own emission reduction targets. Projects might include renewable energy installations, energy efficiency improvements, or reforestation efforts. For instance, a solar power project in India funded by a European country can generate carbon credits for the investor while providing clean energy locally.
Clean Energy	Energy derived from renewable, zero-emissions sources, as well as energy saved through energy efficiency measures. Clean energy sources include solar power, wind power, hydropower, and geothermal energy, which produce little to no greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels. Energy efficiency measures, such as using LED lighting and improving building insulation, also contribute to reducing overall energy consumption and emissions.
Climate Activism	Efforts by individuals and organizations to promote awareness and action on climate change. This can include protests, lobbying for policy changes, and raising public awareness through campaigns and social media. Notable examples include the global climate strikes led by youth activists like Greta Thunberg and organizations like Extinction Rebellion, which use civil disobedience to demand urgent climate action from governments and corporations.
Climate Adaptation	The process of adjusting to current or expected changes in climate and its effects. This involves implementing measures to reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience to climate impacts. Examples include building flood defences to protect against sea-level rise, developing drought-resistant crops to ensure food security, and redesigning infrastructure to withstand extreme weather events. Adaptation strategies are essential to mitigate the impacts of climate change on communities and ecosystems.
Climate Change	Long-term changes in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other aspects of the Earth's climate system, primarily due to human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation. Climate change effects include rising global temperatures, melting ice caps and glaciers, sea-level rise, and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events like hurricanes, droughts, and heatwaves. Addressing climate change requires both mitigation efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adaptation strategies to cope with its impacts.
Climate Communication	The practice of informing and engaging the public about climate change, its impacts, and solutions. Effective climate communication involves clear, accurate, and compelling messages tailored to different audiences. For example, scientists, educators, and journalists work together to communicate climate science to the public through documentaries, social media campaigns, and educational programs.
Climate Education	The process of teaching individuals and communities about climate change, its causes, effects, and actions they can take to mitigate and adapt to it. Climate education aims to empower people with the knowledge and skills needed to address climate challenges. For instance, schools might incorporate climate change topics into their science curriculum, and community organizations might offer workshops on sustainable practices.
Climate Emergency	A situation in which urgent action is required to reduce or halt climate change and prevent potentially catastrophic environmental, social, and economic consequences. Many governments and organizations have declared a climate emergency to highlight the need for immediate action. For example, in 2019, the UK Parliament declared a climate emergency, recognizing the need for rapid and significant changes to address climate change.
Climate Feedback Loops	Processes that can either amplify or diminish the effects of climate change. Positive feedback loops exacerbate climate change, while negative feedback loops mitigate it. For example, the melting of Arctic ice is a positive feedback loop: as ice melts, it reduces the Earth's albedo (reflectivity), causing more solar energy to be absorbed, leading to further warming and more ice melt.
Climate Feedbacks	The interactions between various components of the climate system that can influence climate change. These feedbacks can be either positive (amplifying) or negative (dampening). An example of a negative feedback is increased plant growth due to higher CO₂ levels, which can absorb more CO₂ and reduce its concentration in the atmosphere.
Climate Finance	Financial resources provided to support actions to mitigate and adapt to climate change. This includes funding for renewable energy projects, energy efficiency improvements, and climate resilience initiatives in vulnerable communities. For instance, the Green Climate Fund (GCF) provides financial assistance to developing countries to help them reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate impacts.
Climate Justice	The fair and equitable treatment of all people in the context of climate change, addressing the disproportionate impacts on vulnerable and marginalized communities. Climate justice advocates for policies and practices that protect the rights of those most affected by climate change. For example, indigenous communities often face greater risks from climate change and may lack the resources to adapt, so climate justice efforts work to ensure their voices are heard and their needs are met.
Climate Mitigation	Efforts to reduce or prevent the emission of greenhouse gases to slow the pace of climate change. This can involve switching to renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency, reforestation, and developing low-carbon technologies. For example, transitioning from coal-fired power plants to wind and solar energy helps mitigate climate change by reducing CO₂ emissions.
Climate Modelling	The use of mathematical and computational techniques to simulate the Earth's climate system and predict future climate conditions based on different scenarios. Climate models help scientists understand the potential impacts of climate change and inform policy decisions. For instance, climate models have been used to predict temperature increases, sea-level rise, and changes in precipitation patterns under various greenhouse gas emission scenarios.
Climate Negotiations	The international discussions and agreements aimed at addressing climate change through coordinated efforts. These negotiations involve representatives from governments, organizations, and other stakeholders working to reach consensus on actions to reduce emissions and adapt to climate impacts. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) hosts annual Conferences of the Parties (COP) where key agreements like the Paris Agreement are negotiated.
Climate Refugees	People who are forced to leave their homes and communities due to the impacts of climate change, such as sea-level rise, extreme weather events, and prolonged droughts. For example, residents of low-lying island nations like Kiribati may become climate refugees as rising sea levels make their homes uninhabitable.
Climate Resilience	The ability of communities, ecosystems, and economies to withstand and recover from the impacts of climate change. Building climate resilience involves enhancing adaptive capacities, reducing vulnerabilities, and implementing strategies to cope with climate-related risks. For instance, cities may invest in flood defences, improve emergency response systems, and promote sustainable urban planning to enhance resilience.
Climate Resilient Infrastructure	Infrastructure designed and built to withstand the impacts of climate change and maintain functionality during extreme weather events. Examples include elevated roads and bridges, stormwater management systems, and buildings designed to withstand high winds and flooding. Incorporating climate resilience into infrastructure planning helps ensure long-term sustainability and safety.
Climate Stewardship	The responsible management and protection of the environment to address climate change and promote sustainability. This involves actions by individuals, communities, businesses, and governments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, conserve natural resources, and support climate adaptation efforts. For example, a company might implement sustainable business practices, such as reducing waste and conserving energy, to demonstrate climate stewardship.
Conservation Biology	The scientific study of protecting and preserving biodiversity, ecosystems, and natural resources. Conservation biologists work to understand the factors that threaten species and habitats and develop strategies to prevent extinction and promote ecosystem health. For instance, conservation biologists might work on habitat restoration projects, species reintroduction programs, and the establishment of protected areas to conserve endangered species and ecosystems.
Conservation Genetics	The application of genetics to preserve species as dynamic entities capable of coping with environmental change. Conservation genetics helps manage small populations, maintain genetic diversity, and understand species’ evolutionary potential. For example, genetic analysis can guide breeding programs for endangered species like the California condor to ensure genetic diversity is maintained.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)	The concept that businesses have a duty to serve society and contribute to the well-being of communities and the environment. CSR initiatives may include reducing carbon footprints, improving labour policies, engaging in fair trade, charitable giving, and community investments. For instance, a company might reduce its environmental impact by implementing sustainable practices and supporting local conservation efforts.
Decarbonization	The process of reducing carbon dioxide emissions from energy use and industrial activities to mitigate climate change. This can involve transitioning to renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and adopting low-carbon technologies. For example, a city might implement policies to promote electric vehicles, increase energy efficiency in buildings, and expand the use of renewable energy like wind and solar power.
Deforestation	The large-scale removal of trees and forests, often to clear land for agriculture, logging, or urban development. Deforestation leads to habitat loss, biodiversity decline, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. The Amazon rainforest, for instance, has experienced significant deforestation due to cattle ranching, soybean farming, and illegal logging.
Desertification	The process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture. Desertification leads to the loss of arable land, reduced agricultural productivity, and environmental degradation. The Sahel region in Africa is a notable example, where overgrazing and climate change have contributed to the spread of desert-like conditions.
Ecolabeling	The practice of labelling products to indicate that they meet certain environmental standards, helping consumers make more sustainable choices. Ecolabels can certify that products are organic, energy-efficient, or produced sustainably. For instance, the Energy Star label indicates that appliances meet energy efficiency guidelines set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Ecological Accounting	The process of evaluating and quantifying the environmental costs and benefits associated with business activities. This includes assessing the impact on natural resources, ecosystems, and biodiversity. For example, a company might use ecological accounting to measure the carbon footprint of its operations and develop strategies to reduce emissions.
Ecological Compensation	Measures taken to compensate for the negative impacts of development on ecosystems and biodiversity. This can involve creating new habitats, restoring degraded ecosystems, or establishing conservation areas. For instance, if a wetland is destroyed due to construction, ecological compensation might involve creating or restoring a wetland of similar size and function elsewhere.
Ecological Connectivity	The degree to which landscapes facilitate or impede the movement of species and ecological processes. High ecological connectivity allows for the movement of species between habitats, supporting biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. For example, wildlife corridors connecting fragmented habitats enable animals to move safely between areas, increasing their chances of survival and reproduction.
Ecological Corridor	A strip of natural habitat that connects separated populations, allowing for movement and interaction between them. Ecological corridors help maintain genetic diversity, support species migration, and facilitate the spread of ecological processes. For instance, a corridor of forested land between two national parks can enable animals like tigers and elephants to move between protected areas.
Ecological Disturbance	A temporary change in environmental conditions that causes a pronounced change in an ecosystem. Disturbances can be natural, such as wildfires, floods, and hurricanes, or human-induced, such as deforestation, pollution, and urbanization. For example, wildfires in forest ecosystems can create openings for new plant growth, maintaining ecological balance.
Ecological Diversity	The variety and variability of ecosystems, habitats, and species within a specific area. High ecological diversity contributes to the resilience and stability of ecosystems. For example, a region with forests, wetlands, grasslands, and rivers supports a wide range of species and ecological processes, enhancing overall biodiversity.
Ecological Drought	A prolonged period of abnormally low precipitation that affects the health and function of ecosystems. Ecological drought can lead to reduced water availability, plant stress, increased wildfire risk, and loss of biodiversity. For instance, prolonged drought in the American Southwest has impacted forest health, increased tree mortality, and stressed water resources.
Ecological Economics	An interdisciplinary field that integrates ecological and economic principles to address environmental challenges. It emphasizes the sustainable use of natural resources, the valuation of ecosystem services, and the impact of economic activities on the environment. For example, ecological economists might study the economic benefits of preserving wetlands for flood control and water purification.
Ecological Engineering	The design, construction, and management of ecosystems for the benefit of humans and the environment. This involves using ecological principles to restore degraded ecosystems, create new habitats, and enhance ecosystem services. For instance, constructing artificial wetlands to treat wastewater can improve water quality and provide habitat for wildlife.
Ecological Footprint	The measure of the human demand on Earth's ecosystems. It compares human consumption of natural resources with Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate them. An individual's ecological footprint includes the land and water area required to produce the resources they consume and absorb their waste. For example, reducing one's ecological footprint might involve using energy-efficient appliances, consuming less meat, and minimizing waste.
Ecological Indicator	A species or ecosystem feature that provides information on the health and quality of the environment. Ecological indicators are used to monitor changes in ecosystems and assess the impact of human activities. For example, the presence of certain amphibian species can indicate good water quality, as they are sensitive to pollution.
Ecological Ethics	A branch of ethics that considers the moral relationship of human beings to the environment and its non-human contents. It emphasizes the intrinsic value of all living beings and ecosystems. For example, ecological ethics might guide policies to protect endangered species or preserve natural habitats, promoting the idea that humans have a responsibility to minimize their environmental impact.
Ecological Footprint	The measure of the human demand on Earth's ecosystems. It compares human consumption of natural resources with Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate them. For example, an individual's ecological footprint includes the land and water area required to produce the resources they consume and absorb their waste. This can include energy use, food consumption, and waste generation.
Ecological Footprint Management	The practice of monitoring and reducing the ecological footprint of individuals, organizations, or communities. This involves implementing strategies to decrease resource consumption and waste production. For instance, a company might adopt sustainable practices such as reducing energy use, recycling materials, and sourcing raw materials sustainably to manage its ecological footprint.
Ecological Footprint Reduction	Actions and strategies aimed at lowering the ecological footprint. This can include reducing energy consumption, minimizing waste, using sustainable transportation, and adopting a plant-based diet. For example, an individual might reduce their footprint by using public transportation instead of driving, installing solar panels, and reducing meat consumption.
Ecological Goods and Services Valuation	The process of assigning economic value to the benefits provided by ecosystems, such as clean air and water, pollination of crops, and climate regulation. This helps in making informed decisions about environmental conservation and sustainable use. For example, valuing the water purification services provided by wetlands can justify investments in wetland conservation and restoration.
Ecological Hierarchy	The organization of biological entities in an ordered series of levels, from individual organisms to the biosphere. This includes levels such as individuals, populations, communities, ecosystems, and biomes. For instance, a forest ecosystem includes various species (community), each species' population, and individual organisms interacting within the habitat.
Ecological Impact Assessment	A process used to evaluate the environmental effects of a proposed project or development. It aims to identify, predict, and mitigate adverse ecological impacts. For example, an ecological impact assessment might be conducted before building a new highway to assess its impact on local wildlife and habitats, and to propose measures to minimize harm.
Ecological Indicator	A species or ecosystem feature that provides information on the health and quality of the environment. Indicators are used to monitor changes in ecosystems and assess the impact of human activities. For example, the presence of certain amphibian species can indicate good water quality, as they are sensitive to pollution.
Ecological Intensification	The process of increasing agricultural productivity through sustainable practices that enhance ecosystem services rather than relying on external inputs like chemical fertilizers and pesticides. For example, using crop rotation, cover cropping, and integrated pest management can improve soil health and increase yields sustainably.
Ecological Modelling	The use of mathematical and computational techniques to represent and simulate ecological processes and interactions within ecosystems. Ecological models help in understanding complex systems and predicting the effects of environmental changes. For instance, models can simulate the impact of climate change on species distributions or the dynamics of predator-prey relationships.
Ecological Monitoring	The systematic collection and analysis of data on ecological conditions and trends. Monitoring helps in detecting changes in ecosystems, assessing the effectiveness of management actions, and guiding conservation efforts. For example, monitoring programs might track changes in bird populations, water quality, or vegetation cover over time.
Ecological Network	A system of interconnected natural areas that facilitate the movement of species and the flow of ecological processes across landscapes. Ecological networks enhance biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. For example, a network of protected areas and wildlife corridors allows animals to migrate and adapt to environmental changes.
Ecological Niche	The role and position of a species within its environment, including its interactions with other species and its use of resources. The niche encompasses factors such as habitat preference, feeding habits, and reproductive strategies. For instance, the ecological niche of a honeybee includes its role in pollination and its preference for certain flowering plants.
Ecological Reserves	Areas set aside for the protection and conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems. These reserves aim to preserve natural habitats, support species conservation, and maintain ecosystem services. Examples include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and nature reserves. For instance, Yellowstone National Park in the USA serves as an ecological reserve, protecting diverse habitats and species.
Ecological Resilience	The ability of an ecosystem to withstand disturbances and still maintain its basic structure and functions. Resilient ecosystems can absorb shocks from events like wildfires, floods, or human activities and recover to their original state. For example, a coral reef may exhibit resilience by recovering its structure and species diversity after a bleaching event.
Ecological Restoration	The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. This involves activities such as planting native species, removing invasive species, and restoring natural hydrology. For instance, reforestation projects aim to restore deforested areas by planting native trees and shrubs.
Ecological Restoration Monitoring	The ongoing process of evaluating the progress and success of ecological restoration projects. This involves measuring indicators such as species diversity, vegetation cover, and ecosystem functions to ensure restoration goals are being met. For example, monitoring a wetland restoration project might include tracking water quality and the return of native plant and animal species.
Ecological Risk Assessment	A process used to evaluate the potential adverse effects of human activities on the environment. It involves identifying hazards, assessing exposure and vulnerability, and estimating the likelihood and severity of impacts. For example, an ecological risk assessment might be conducted to evaluate the impact of pesticide use on non-target species and ecosystems.
Ecological Services	The benefits that humans derive from ecosystems, also known as ecosystem services. These include provisioning services (e.g., food, water), regulating services (e.g., climate regulation, flood control), cultural services (e.g., recreation, spiritual value), and supporting services (e.g., nutrient cycling, soil formation). For instance, forests provide timber, sequester carbon, and offer recreational opportunities.
Ecological Stoichiometry	The study of the balance of multiple chemical elements in ecological interactions, such as the ratios of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in organisms and ecosystems. It helps understand nutrient cycling and energy flow. For example, the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus in aquatic ecosystems can influence algal growth and the dynamics of food webs.
Ecological Succession	The process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time. Succession occurs in stages: primary succession starts on bare substrate with no soil, while secondary succession occurs in areas where a disturbance has destroyed a community but left the soil intact. For example, after a forest fire (secondary succession), grasses and shrubs may initially dominate, followed by trees as the ecosystem recovers.
Ecological Surplus	The amount of resources or ecological capacity available beyond what is required to sustain a population or ecosystem. It can be seen as the carrying capacity minus the current resource use. For example, a region with abundant water resources, low pollution levels, and ample wildlife habitat has an ecological surplus, which can buffer against future environmental changes.
Ecological Threshold	The point at which a relatively small change or disturbance in external conditions causes a rapid and significant change in an ecosystem. Crossing an ecological threshold can lead to a shift in the state of the ecosystem, often with negative consequences. For example, overfishing can push a marine ecosystem past an ecological threshold, leading to the collapse of fish populations and changes in the entire marine food web.
Ecoregion	A geographically distinct area that contains characteristic, geographically distinct assemblages of natural communities and species. Ecoregions are defined by factors such as climate, soil, and vegetation. For example, the Amazon Basin ecoregion is characterized by its tropical rainforest ecosystem, high biodiversity, and unique plant and animal species.
Ecosystem	A community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microbes) interacting with their physical environment (air, water, soil) as a system. Ecosystems can be natural (e.g., forests, wetlands) or artificial (e.g., urban parks). For example, a coral reef ecosystem includes the coral organisms, fish, invertebrates, and the surrounding water and substrate.
Ecosystem Function	The biological, geochemical, and physical processes that occur within an ecosystem, contributing to its stability and health. These functions include nutrient cycling, energy flow, primary production, and decomposition. For example, the decomposition of organic matter by fungi and bacteria is a key ecosystem function that recycles nutrients back into the soil.
Ecosystem Goods and Services	The benefits provided by ecosystems that contribute to human well-being, including both tangible goods and intangible services. Ecosystem goods include resources like timber, fish, and fresh water, while services include pollination, climate regulation, and recreational opportunities. For instance, wetlands provide flood control, water purification, and habitat for wildlife, while forests sequester carbon and offer recreation.
Ecosystem Health	The state of an ecosystem in terms of its stability, sustainability, and ability to provide ecosystem services. A healthy ecosystem maintains its structure, functions, and processes despite environmental stress. Indicators of ecosystem health include biodiversity, water quality, and the presence of key species. For example, a healthy forest ecosystem supports a wide variety of plants and animals, has robust nutrient cycling, and provides clean water and air.
Ecosystem Management	A holistic approach to managing natural resources that considers ecological relationships, sustainability, and human needs. Ecosystem management aims to maintain ecosystem services, conserve biodiversity, and support sustainable development. For example, managing a watershed to ensure clean water supply, protect habitats, and provide recreational opportunities involves coordinated actions across different land uses and stakeholders.
Ecosystem Services	The benefits that humans derive from ecosystems, including provisioning services (e.g., food, water), regulating services (e.g., climate regulation, flood control), cultural services (e.g., recreation, spiritual value), and supporting services (e.g., nutrient cycling, soil formation). For instance, wetlands provide water purification, flood protection, and habitat for wildlife, while forests sequester carbon and offer recreational opportunities.
Ecotone	A transition zone between two different ecosystems or ecological communities, where species from both ecosystems can coexist and interact. Ecotones often have high biodiversity due to the mixing of species from adjacent areas. For example, the boundary between a forest and a grassland is an ecotone that supports species from both ecosystems and may include unique species adapted to the transition zone.
Ecotourism	Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of local communities, and involves interpretation and education. Ecotourism aims to minimize the impact on the environment while providing economic benefits to local communities. For example, guided wildlife tours in national parks, where visitors learn about conservation efforts and local culture, contribute to ecotourism.
Emissions Trading	A market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for reducing emissions. Also known as cap-and-trade, emissions trading involves setting a cap on total emissions and allowing entities to buy and sell emission allowances. For example, the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) sets a cap on CO₂ emissions for certain industries and allows companies to trade emission permits.
Endemic Species	Species that are native to and found only within a specific geographical area. Endemic species are often vulnerable to extinction due to their limited distribution. For example, the lemurs of Madagascar are endemic to the island and are found nowhere else in the world.
Energy Efficiency	The goal of using less energy to provide the same service or achieve the same outcome. Improving energy efficiency reduces energy consumption, lowers greenhouse gas emissions, and can save money. For example, using LED light bulbs instead of incandescent bulbs, installing energy-efficient appliances, and improving building insulation are ways to increase energy efficiency.
Energy Transition	The process of shifting from a reliance on fossil fuels to a sustainable energy system based on renewable energy sources, energy efficiency, and low-carbon technologies. The energy transition aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance energy security, and promote sustainable development. For example, Germany's Energiewende is a policy initiative aimed at transitioning to renewable energy sources like wind and solar power.
Environmental Ethics	The philosophical study of the moral relationship between humans and the environment, focusing on the ethical principles guiding human interactions with nature. Environmental ethics explores issues such as conservation, sustainability, and the intrinsic value of non-human life. For instance, the debate over whether to preserve endangered species habitats versus developing land for economic purposes involves environmental ethics.
Environmental Governance	The processes and institutions through which decisions about the environment are made and implemented. Effective environmental governance involves multiple stakeholders, including governments, businesses, and civil society, and aims to ensure sustainable management of natural resources. For example, international agreements like the Paris Agreement on climate change involve collaborative governance to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.
Environmental Health	The branch of public health that focuses on the relationships between people and their environment, aiming to promote human health and well-being by addressing environmental factors. This includes the study of air and water quality, chemical exposures, and the impact of climate change on health. For example, reducing air pollution in urban areas can significantly improve respiratory health outcomes for residents.
Environmental Impact	The effect that human activities and natural events have on the environment, including changes to ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources. Assessing environmental impact involves evaluating both positive and negative effects. For example, the construction of a new highway might have environmental impacts such as habitat destruction, increased pollution, and changes in local hydrology.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)	A process used to evaluate the potential environmental effects of a proposed project or development before it begins. EIAs aim to predict environmental impacts, propose measures to mitigate negative effects, and inform decision-making. For example, before building a new dam, an EIA would assess impacts on water quality, fish populations, and local communities, and suggest measures to minimize harm.
Environmental Justice	The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, colour, national origin, or income concerning the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. Environmental justice seeks to address the disproportionate environmental burdens faced by marginalized communities. For instance, campaigns to reduce air pollution in low-income urban areas highlight issues of environmental justice.
Environmental Law	A body of laws and regulations aimed at protecting the environment and ensuring sustainable resource management. Environmental law covers areas such as pollution control, natural resource management, and wildlife conservation. Examples include the Clean Air Act, which regulates air emissions, and the Endangered Species Act, which protects threatened and endangered species.
Environmental Monitoring	The systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of environmental data to track changes and assess the health of ecosystems. Monitoring helps detect pollution, evaluate the effectiveness of regulations, and guide conservation efforts. For example, air quality monitoring stations measure levels of pollutants like ozone and particulate matter to assess and manage air quality.
Environmental Policy	A set of principles and regulations established by governments or organizations to manage human activities' impact on the environment. Environmental policies aim to promote sustainability, conserve natural resources, and protect ecosystems. For instance, the Paris Agreement is an international policy aimed at combating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Environmental Restoration	The process of returning degraded or damaged ecosystems to a more natural state. This can involve activities such as reforestation, wetland restoration, and the removal of invasive species. For example, restoring a river that has been polluted and altered by human activities might include removing contaminants, replanting native vegetation, and re-establishing natural water flow patterns.
Eutrophication	The process by which water bodies become enriched with nutrients, leading to excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants. This can result in oxygen depletion, fish kills, and loss of biodiversity. Eutrophication is often caused by runoff from agricultural land, which carries fertilizers into rivers, lakes, and coastal waters. For example, the Gulf of Mexico experiences a large "dead zone" each summer due to nutrient pollution from the Mississippi River.
Food Security	The state in which all people have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Food security involves food availability, access, utilization, and stability. For example, initiatives to improve food security might include supporting local agriculture, reducing food waste, and ensuring equitable food distribution.
Food Waste	The discarding of food that is safe and nutritious for human consumption. Food waste occurs at various stages of the food supply chain, from production and processing to retail and consumption. Reducing food waste can improve food security, conserve resources, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, programs that recover and redistribute surplus food from supermarkets to food banks help reduce food waste and feed those in need.
Genetic Diversity	The total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. Genetic diversity is crucial for species' adaptability to changing environments and resilience to diseases and pests. Conservation efforts often aim to preserve genetic diversity to ensure long-term species survival. For example, maintaining diverse gene pools in crop species can help develop new varieties resistant to climate change and pests.
Geoengineering	The deliberate large-scale manipulation of the Earth's climate system to counteract climate change. Geoengineering techniques include solar radiation management (e.g., reflecting sunlight away from Earth) and carbon dioxide removal (e.g., afforestation and carbon capture and storage). Geoengineering is controversial due to potential unintended consequences and ethical concerns. For instance, injecting aerosols into the stratosphere to reflect sunlight is a proposed geoengineering method to cool the planet.
Global Warming	The long-term rise in Earth's average surface temperature due to human activities, primarily the emission of greenhouse gases such as CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide. Global warming leads to climate change, affecting weather patterns, sea levels, and ecosystems. For example, the burning of fossil fuels for energy and deforestation contribute significantly to global warming, resulting in melting ice caps, rising sea levels, and more frequent extreme weather events.
Green Bonds	Fixed-income financial instruments designed to raise funds for projects with environmental benefits, such as renewable energy, energy efficiency, and conservation efforts. Green bonds help finance sustainable development and mitigate climate change. For example, the World Bank issues green bonds to fund projects like wind farms and sustainable agriculture.
Green Building	The practice of designing, constructing, and operating buildings to minimize environmental impact and enhance occupant health. Green buildings incorporate sustainable materials, energy-efficient systems, and environmentally friendly construction practices. Examples include buildings certified under the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program, which meet specific sustainability criteria.
Green Economy	An economy that aims for sustainable development without degrading the environment. It focuses on reducing carbon emissions, enhancing energy and resource efficiency, and preventing loss of biodiversity. For example, investing in renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, and green technologies are components of a green economy.
Green Energy	Energy derived from renewable sources that have minimal impact on the environment, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal energy. Green energy reduces reliance on fossil fuels and helps mitigate climate change. For instance, solar panels convert sunlight into electricity, providing a clean and renewable energy source.
Green Infrastructure	A network of natural and semi-natural areas, features, and green spaces that provide ecosystem services and improve environmental quality. Green infrastructure includes parks, green roofs, wetlands, and urban forests. For example, green roofs can reduce urban heat island effects, improve air quality, and manage stormwater runoff.
Green Jobs	Employment opportunities that contribute to preserving or restoring the environment. Green jobs encompass sectors like renewable energy, energy efficiency, waste management, and environmental conservation. For example, installing solar panels, conducting energy audits, and managing recycling programs are all considered green jobs.
Greenhouse Gases	Gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming and climate change. Major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and fluorinated gases. For instance, CO₂ is released from burning fossil fuels, while methane is emitted from livestock and landfills.
Greenwashing	The practice of making misleading claims about the environmental benefits of a product, service, or company's practices to appear more environmentally friendly than they are. Greenwashing can deceive consumers and undermine genuine sustainability efforts. For example, a company might advertise its products as "eco-friendly" without providing evidence or meeting environmental standards.
Habitat Connectivity	The degree to which different habitats are connected, allowing for the movement and interaction of species across the landscape. High habitat connectivity supports biodiversity by enabling species to access resources, find mates, and migrate. For example, wildlife corridors that link fragmented habitats help maintain ecological connectivity and genetic diversity.
Habitat Conservation	The practice of protecting and managing natural habitats to preserve biodiversity and ecosystem functions. Habitat conservation efforts include establishing protected areas, restoring degraded habitats, and implementing sustainable land-use practices. For instance, creating a nature reserve to protect a threatened wetland ecosystem ensures the survival of various plant and animal species.
Habitat Corridor	A strip of natural habitat that connects separated populations, allowing for movement and interaction between them. Habitat corridors help maintain genetic diversity and reduce the risk of local extinctions. For example, a wildlife corridor between two forest fragments enables animals like deer and bears to move freely and safely.
Habitat Diversity	The variety of different habitats within a specific area, supporting a wide range of species and ecological processes. High habitat diversity contributes to overall biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. For example, an area with forests, wetlands, grasslands, and rivers supports a more diverse array of species compared to a single habitat type.
Habitat Fragmentation	The process by which large, continuous habitats are divided into smaller, isolated patches, often due to human activities like urban development, agriculture, and road construction. Fragmentation can lead to reduced biodiversity, disrupted ecological processes, and increased vulnerability of species. For instance, building a highway through a forest can fragment the habitat, isolating wildlife populations and hindering their movement.
Habitat Loss	The process by which natural habitats are altered or destroyed, leading to the decline or extinction of species that rely on them. Habitat loss is primarily caused by human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture. For example, the conversion of tropical rainforests into palm oil plantations results in significant habitat loss for many species, including orangutans.
Habitat Management	The practice of managing and manipulating natural habitats to conserve wildlife and ecosystem functions. Habitat management involves activities such as controlled burning, invasive species removal, and water level regulation. For example, maintaining prairie ecosystems through controlled burns helps prevent woody plant encroachment and supports native grassland species.
Habitat Restoration	The process of returning a degraded or damaged habitat to its natural state to support native species and ecosystem functions. Habitat restoration activities include reforestation, wetland creation, and removal of pollutants. For instance, replanting native vegetation and removing invasive species can restore a degraded riparian zone along a river.
Habitat Suitability	The extent to which a specific area provides the necessary conditions for a particular species to thrive. Habitat suitability assessments consider factors such as food availability, shelter, climate, and presence of predators. For example, habitat suitability models can help identify potential areas for reintroducing endangered species like the California condor.
Hotspot	A biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from human activities. Biodiversity hotspots are prioritized for conservation due to their high levels of endemic species and habitat loss. For example, the Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands hotspot is known for its unique species and severe deforestation.
Invasive Species	Non-native species that spread rapidly in new environments, often causing harm to native species, ecosystems, and human activities. Invasive species can outcompete, prey on, or introduce diseases to native species. For instance, the zebra mussel, native to Eurasia, has become invasive in North American water bodies, disrupting local ecosystems and damaging infrastructure.
Island Biogeography	The study of the ecological relationships and distribution of species on islands and isolated habitats. Island biogeography examines factors such as island size, distance from the mainland, and habitat diversity to understand species richness and extinction rates. For example, the theory of island biogeography helps explain the biodiversity patterns observed in the Galápagos Islands.
Keystone Ecosystem	An ecosystem that has a disproportionately large impact on its environment relative to its size, supporting a wide range of species and ecological processes. Keystone ecosystems play a critical role in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem stability. For example, wetlands act as keystone ecosystems by providing habitat, filtering water, and regulating floodwaters.
Keystone Species	A species that has a disproportionately large impact on its ecosystem, influencing the structure and function of the environment and the survival of other species. The removal of a keystone species can lead to significant changes in the ecosystem. For instance, the sea otter is a keystone species in kelp forest ecosystems, controlling sea urchin populations that would otherwise overgraze kelp.
Land Use Change	The modification of the natural environment due to human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and deforestation. Land use change affects ecosystems, biodiversity, and climate. For example, converting forests to agricultural land can lead to habitat loss, soil degradation, and increased greenhouse gas emissions.
Landscape Ecology	The study of the patterns and processes that occur across large spatial scales and how they influence ecosystems and organisms. Landscape ecology integrates ecological, geographical, and spatial analysis to understand the interactions between different landscape elements. For instance, landscape ecologists might study how patch size and connectivity affect wildlife movement and biodiversity in fragmented forests.
Landscape Fragmentation	The process by which large, continuous habitats are divided into smaller, isolated patches due to human activities or natural events. Fragmentation can disrupt ecological processes, reduce biodiversity, and increase species' vulnerability to extinction. For example, urban development and road construction can fragment natural landscapes, isolating wildlife populations and hindering gene flow.
Landscape Restoration	The process of restoring large-scale degraded landscapes to their natural or sustainable state. This involves re-establishing ecosystem functions, biodiversity, and services. Landscape restoration projects might include reforestation, soil erosion control, and water management. For example, the Great Green Wall initiative in Africa aims to restore degraded lands across the Sahel region by planting trees and implementing sustainable land-use practices.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)	A systematic analysis of the environmental impacts of a product, process, or service throughout its entire lifecycle, from raw material extraction to disposal. LCA helps identify areas for improvement and supports decision-making for sustainable practices. For instance, an LCA of a plastic bottle would assess impacts from production, transportation, use, and disposal, compared to alternatives like glass or aluminium bottles.
Marine Protected Area (MPA)	Regions of the ocean designated for conservation and management to protect biodiversity and marine resources. MPAs restrict certain activities, such as fishing and mining, to preserve ecosystems and habitats. For example, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia is an MPA that protects a diverse range of marine life and coral reefs.
Mitigation	Actions taken to reduce the severity, seriousness, or harmfulness of an activity or condition. In environmental context, mitigation refers to efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, manage pollution, and protect ecosystems. For instance, installing scrubbers on industrial smokestacks to reduce air pollution is a form of mitigation.
Mutualism	A type of symbiotic relationship between two species in which both benefit. Mutualism is essential for the survival and reproduction of many species. For example, bees and flowering plants exhibit mutualism: bees get nectar and pollen for food, while plants get their pollen spread for reproduction.
Natural Capital	The world's stocks of natural resources, including geology, soil, air, water, and all living organisms, which provide ecosystem services that support human life and economic activity. Valuing natural capital can help in making more sustainable decisions. For example, forests provide timber (a direct use value), store carbon (a regulatory service), and offer recreational opportunities (a cultural service).
Net Zero	Achieving a balance between the amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere and the amount removed or offset, resulting in no net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. Strategies to achieve net zero include reducing emissions, enhancing carbon sinks, and purchasing carbon offsets. For instance, a company might achieve net zero by cutting its carbon emissions and investing in reforestation projects to offset remaining emissions.
Ocean Acidification	The ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere. Ocean acidification affects marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and some plankton species. For example, the Great Barrier Reef is experiencing stress and bleaching due to increased ocean acidity.
Ozone Depletion	The thinning of the Earth's ozone layer in the stratosphere caused by the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other human activities. Ozone depletion increases the amount of harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching the Earth's surface, leading to health and environmental issues. For example, the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in refrigeration and aerosols contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer, leading to the Montreal Protocol to phase out these substances.
Permaculture	A system of agricultural and social design principles that mimic the patterns and relationships found in natural ecosystems. Permaculture aims to create sustainable and self-sufficient agricultural systems. For example, a permaculture farm might use polyculture planting, water conservation techniques, and renewable energy sources to create a resilient and productive ecosystem.
Permafrost	Ground that remains completely frozen for at least two consecutive years. Permafrost is found in polar regions and high mountains. Thawing permafrost due to global warming releases stored greenhouse gases like methane and CO₂, contributing to climate change. For example, the Arctic tundra contains large areas of permafrost, which are currently thawing and releasing methane.
Phylogenetics	The study of evolutionary relationships among biological species based on genetic, morphological, and molecular data. Phylogenetics helps understand the evolutionary history and diversification of life. For instance, constructing a phylogenetic tree can show the evolutionary relationships between different species of birds.
Pollution	The introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment, causing adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. Pollution can be chemical, physical, or biological and affects air, water, and soil. For example, industrial emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides contribute to air pollution and acid rain, impacting ecosystems and human health.
Range Expansion	The process by which a species spreads to new geographic areas. Range expansions can occur naturally due to changes in environmental conditions or through human activities like habitat modification and climate change. For example, the expansion of the coyote's range across North America is due to habitat changes and the removal of larger predators.
Range Shift	The movement of a species' geographic distribution in response to changing environmental conditions, such as climate change. Range shifts can lead to changes in local biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics. For example, many bird species in North America are shifting their ranges northward as temperatures increase.
Regenerative Agriculture	A system of farming principles and practices that seeks to rehabilitate and enhance the entire ecosystem of the farm. It focuses on soil health, water management, and biodiversity. Practices include cover cropping, reduced tillage, and rotational grazing. For example, regenerative agriculture can improve soil carbon sequestration and water retention, enhancing farm resilience and productivity.
Renewable Energy	Energy derived from natural processes that are replenished at a faster rate than they are consumed. Renewable energy sources include solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass. For instance, solar panels convert sunlight into electricity, providing a sustainable energy source that reduces reliance on fossil fuels.
Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS)	Policies that require electricity providers to obtain a minimum percentage of their power from renewable energy sources. RPS aims to increase the use of renewable energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For example, California has an RPS that requires 60% of its electricity to come from renewable sources by 2030.
Resilience	The capacity of an ecosystem or community to absorb disturbances, adapt to changes, and maintain its essential functions and structure. Resilience helps systems recover from shocks such as natural disasters or human activities. For example, a resilient coral reef can recover from bleaching events by regrowing coral and maintaining biodiversity.
Restoration Ecology	The scientific study and practice of restoring damaged or degraded ecosystems to their original state. Restoration ecology aims to re-establish ecosystem functions, processes, and biodiversity. For instance, restoring a degraded wetland involves replanting native vegetation, removing invasive species, and reestablishing natural water flow patterns.
Restoration Genetics	The application of genetic principles to the restoration of species and populations. It involves maintaining or enhancing genetic diversity to ensure the long-term viability of restored populations. For example, using genetically diverse plant seeds in reforestation projects helps create resilient forests that can adapt to environmental changes.
Soil Degradation	The decline in soil quality caused by factors such as erosion, compaction, nutrient depletion, and pollution. Soil degradation reduces agricultural productivity, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. For example, intensive farming practices that strip soil of nutrients and organic matter lead to soil degradation and decreased crop yields.
Species Abundance	The number of individuals of a particular species within a given area or ecosystem. High species abundance indicates a healthy population, while low abundance may signal declining numbers and potential endangerment. For example, monitoring the abundance of fish species in a coral reef helps assess the health of the reef ecosystem.
Species Diversity	The variety and abundance of different species within an ecosystem or a specific area. High species diversity contributes to ecosystem resilience and stability. For example, a tropical rainforest has high species diversity, supporting numerous plant, animal, and insect species, which interact to create a complex and stable ecosystem.
Species Endangerment	The risk of extinction faced by a species due to factors such as habitat loss, climate change, overexploitation, and pollution. Endangered species require conservation efforts to ensure their survival. For instance, the critically endangered Amur leopard faces threats from habitat fragmentation and poaching, necessitating protective measures to prevent its extinction.
Species Evenness	A measure of the relative abundance of different species in an ecosystem. High species evenness means that populations of species are similar in size, contributing to balanced and stable ecosystems. For example, an ecosystem with similar numbers of different plant species has high species evenness, supporting diverse wildlife.
Species Interactions	The various relationships and interactions between species within an ecosystem, such as predation, competition, mutualism, and commensalism. These interactions shape community structure and influence ecosystem dynamics. For example, the predator-prey relationship between wolves and deer regulates the deer population and affects vegetation growth, demonstrating how species interactions influence ecosystem health.
Species Richness	The number of different species present in a particular area or ecosystem. High species richness often indicates a healthy, biodiverse ecosystem. For example, a tropical rainforest with hundreds of plant, animal, and insect species exhibits high species richness compared to a monoculture plantation.
Sustainability	The ability to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It involves balancing economic, social, and environmental considerations to ensure long-term health and prosperity. For example, using renewable energy sources like wind and solar power contributes to sustainability by reducing reliance on finite fossil fuels.
Sustainable Agriculture	Farming practices that maintain and enhance environmental health, economic profitability, and social equity. Sustainable agriculture aims to meet current food needs without depleting natural resources or harming the environment. Practices include crop rotation, conservation tillage, and organic farming. For example, organic farms avoid synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, promoting soil health and biodiversity.
Sustainable Consumption	The use of goods and services in a way that minimizes impact on the environment, conserves resources, and supports quality of life for all. Sustainable consumption involves choosing products that are eco-friendly, energy-efficient, and ethically produced. For example, buying locally sourced, seasonal produce reduces transportation emissions and supports local farmers.
Sustainable Development	Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It encompasses economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection. For example, building green infrastructure that supports economic development while preserving natural resources is a form of sustainable development.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)	A set of 17 global goals established by the United Nations in 2015 to address urgent global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice. The SDGs provide a blueprint for achieving a better and more sustainable future for all by 2030. For instance, SDG 13 focuses on taking urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
Sustainable Finance	Financial services that take into account environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria to promote sustainable economic growth. Sustainable finance supports investments in projects and businesses that contribute to sustainable development. For example, green bonds are a type of sustainable finance that raise funds for environmental projects such as renewable energy installations.
Sustainable Materials	Materials that are sourced, produced, and used in ways that minimize environmental impact and promote sustainability. Sustainable materials are often renewable, recyclable, and biodegradable. For instance, bamboo is considered a sustainable material because it grows rapidly, requires minimal resources, and can be used in a variety of products from flooring to clothing.
Sustainable Tourism	Tourism that considers its current and future economic, social, and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment, and host communities. Sustainable tourism aims to minimize negative impacts and contribute to conservation and local economies. For example, ecotourism initiatives that promote wildlife conservation and benefit local communities in areas like Costa Rica.
Sustainable Transportation	Transportation methods that reduce environmental impact and promote energy efficiency. Sustainable transportation includes public transit, biking, walking, and electric vehicles. For example, cities like Copenhagen and Amsterdam have extensive cycling infrastructure to promote sustainable transportation.
Trophic Cascade	A series of changes in population sizes of organisms at different trophic levels in a food chain, often initiated by the addition or removal of a top predator. Trophic cascades can significantly impact ecosystem structure and nutrient cycling. For instance, the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park led to a trophic cascade that affected populations of deer, vegetation, and other wildlife.
Trophic Level	The position an organism occupies in a food chain, which is determined by its feeding relationships. Primary producers (plants) occupy the first trophic level, herbivores the second, and carnivores higher levels. For example, in a grassland ecosystem, grass (primary producer) is eaten by rabbits (primary consumer), which are preyed upon by foxes (secondary consumer).
Urban Agriculture	The practice of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in or around urban areas. Urban agriculture can improve food security, reduce food miles, and enhance community engagement. Examples include rooftop gardens, community gardens, and vertical farms. For instance, the Brooklyn Grange in New York City operates rooftop farms that produce vegetables and honey.
Urban Heat Island	The phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than their rural surroundings due to human activities, buildings, and infrastructure that absorb and retain heat. Urban heat islands can exacerbate heatwaves and increase energy consumption for cooling. For example, planting trees and creating green roofs in cities can help mitigate the urban heat island effect by providing shade and cooling through evapotranspiration.
Water Scarcity	The lack of sufficient available water resources to meet the demands of water usage within a region. Water scarcity can result from natural causes, such as drought, or human activities, such as over-extraction and pollution. For example, Cape Town, South Africa, faced severe water scarcity during the 2018 drought, leading to strict water rationing and conservation measures.
Zero Waste	A philosophy and strategy that aims to minimize waste generation and maximize recycling and reuse, ultimately reducing the amount of waste sent to landfills and incinerators. Zero waste practices include designing products for durability, repairability, and recyclability, and promoting circular economy principles. For instance, San Francisco has implemented a zero waste plan aiming to divert all waste from landfills by promoting recycling, composting, and waste reduction programs.